Autor: Claudia Samudio

A research proposal is a document that argues for the value, feasibility, and design of a study you want to conduct. Whether you’re submitting to a dissertation committee, a funding agency, or an IRB, your proposal must convince readers that your research question is worth answering and that your plan for answering it is sound. This guide shows you exactly how to write a research proposal that gets approved.

What Is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is a formal document outlining the what, why, and how of a proposed study. It differs from a research paper in that it describes research you plan to do, not research you have completed. Its purpose is to persuade a committee, supervisor, or funding body that your research is necessary, original, and achievable within the proposed resources and timeframe.

Research Proposal Structure: All Sections Explained

1. Title

The title should be specific and informative, not vague. It should identify the topic, the population, and ideally the method or variable. Compare: «Social Media and Mental Health» (too vague) vs. «The Relationship Between Instagram Use Frequency and Depressive Symptoms in Undergraduate Women: A Longitudinal Study» (specific, informative, researchable).

2. Abstract or Executive Summary

A 150–300 word overview of the proposal covering: the research problem, the gap you address, your research question, your methodology, and the expected contribution. Write this last, after the full proposal is drafted. Many reviewers read only the abstract initially, so it must be compelling and clear on its own.

3. Introduction and Problem Statement

The introduction establishes the research context and argues for the importance of your question. A strong problem statement does four things: it describes what is known, identifies what is not yet known (the gap), explains why that gap matters (the significance), and presents your research question as the solution to that gap.

The introduction typically closes with a clear, single-sentence research question or the aim of the study: «This study aims to examine whether Instagram use frequency predicts depressive symptom severity in undergraduate women over a 12-week period, controlling for baseline depression and social support.»

4. Literature Review

The literature review in a research proposal is not a full-length chapter — it is a selective synthesis that establishes the intellectual context for your study. It should: demonstrate that you know the relevant scholarship, identify the debate or gap your study addresses, show how your study builds on or departs from existing work, and justify your theoretical framework or conceptual model.

In a proposal, the literature review is typically 1–3 pages for a course-level proposal, 5–10 pages for a dissertation proposal, and 3–5 pages for a grant proposal. The goal is to show sufficient familiarity with the field, not to be encyclopedic.

5. Research Questions and Hypotheses

State your research questions clearly and precisely. Quantitative studies typically have hypotheses that specify the expected direction of relationships: «It is hypothesized that higher Instagram use frequency will be positively associated with greater depressive symptom severity at 12 weeks (H1), with this relationship stronger among women with lower baseline social support (H2).»

Qualitative studies use research questions rather than hypotheses, phrased to allow for emergent findings: «How do undergraduate women describe the relationship between their Instagram use and their emotional wellbeing?»

6. Methodology

The methodology is the most scrutinized section of a research proposal. It must convince reviewers that your design can actually answer your research question. Cover the following:

• Research design: What kind of study is this? (Experimental, quasi-experimental, longitudinal, cross-sectional, case study, ethnographic, etc.) Why is this design appropriate for your research question?
• Participants / Sample: Who will you study? How will you recruit them? How many participants do you need and why (include a brief power analysis for quantitative studies)? What are the inclusion and exclusion criteria?
• Measures and materials: What variables will you measure? What instruments, scales, or tools will you use? Are these validated? What are their psychometric properties?
• Procedure: Walk through what will happen step by step, from recruitment through data collection to data processing.
• Data analysis plan: How will you analyze your data? Name specific statistical tests (for quantitative research) or analytic approaches (for qualitative research). Justify the choice.
• Ethical considerations: How will you protect participants? What risks are involved and how will you mitigate them? Have you identified the relevant IRB or ethics committee?

7. Timeline

Present a realistic schedule showing when each phase of the research will be completed: literature review refinement, IRB approval, participant recruitment, data collection, data analysis, writing, and submission. Use a Gantt chart or a simple table for clarity. Be conservative — reviewers know that research takes longer than anticipated, and an overly optimistic timeline raises credibility concerns.

8. Budget (if applicable)

Grant proposals require a detailed budget with justification for each line item: personnel costs, participant compensation, materials, software, travel, indirect costs. Every budget item should be tied to a specific activity in the methodology. Never inflate the budget and never underestimate — an unrealistic budget in either direction undermines credibility.

9. Expected Outcomes and Significance

What do you expect to find? How will those findings contribute to the field? What are the theoretical, practical, or policy implications? This section answers the reviewer’s implicit question: «So what?» Even if your findings don’t confirm your hypotheses, explain how the results will be meaningful either way.

10. References

A research proposal uses citations throughout and ends with a complete reference list in the appropriate style (APA for social sciences, Chicago for humanities, Vancouver for biomedical research). Every source cited in the proposal must appear in the reference list.

Research Proposal Example: Problem Statement

Here is an example of a strong problem statement for a social science proposal:

Social media use among young adults has increased substantially over the past decade, with over 70% of undergraduates reporting daily Instagram use (Pew Research Center, 2024). Correlational research consistently associates heavy social media use with increased depression and anxiety in this population (Smith & Jones, 2023; Brown et al., 2022), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. However, the existing literature is dominated by cross-sectional designs that cannot establish the direction of the relationship: does social media use cause depression, or do depressed individuals use social media more? Furthermore, no existing study has examined whether the effect varies by type of social media activity (passive scrolling vs. active posting) or by social support level, limiting the development of targeted interventions. The present longitudinal study addresses these gaps by tracking Instagram use patterns, depressive symptoms, and social support weekly over 12 weeks in a sample of undergraduate women, enabling causal inference and moderation analysis unavailable in prior cross-sectional work.

Common Research Proposal Mistakes

• Vague research question — «Studying the effects of social media» is not a research question. State exactly what relationship you will examine, in what population, over what time period.
• Methodology that doesn’t match the question — A research question about causation requires an experimental or longitudinal design. A cross-sectional survey cannot establish causation.
• Underestimating the timeline — IRB approval alone can take 4–8 weeks. Factor in realistic time for each stage.
• Literature review that only summarizes — The literature review in a proposal must identify the specific gap your study addresses. If you can’t name the gap, the proposal has no justification.
• Not addressing ethical considerations — Every proposal involving human participants must address consent, confidentiality, and risk mitigation.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should a research proposal be?

Length varies by context. Course-level proposals: 5–8 pages. Dissertation/thesis proposals: 15–30 pages. Small research grants: 5–10 pages. Large grants (NSF, NIH, Wellcome Trust): follow the funder’s page limits exactly — these are strict. When in doubt, check your institution’s or funder’s specific guidelines, which always take precedence.

What citation style should a research proposal use?

Use the citation style standard in your discipline: APA for social sciences, psychology, and education; Chicago/Turabian for humanities; Vancouver or AMA for biomedical and clinical research; IEEE for engineering. If submitting to a specific funding body, follow their style requirements exactly.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step Guide
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write a Thesis Statement
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download

The APA title page is the first thing your reader sees, and it has very specific formatting requirements that differ between student papers and professional papers. This guide covers every element of the APA title page following APA 7th edition (2020), with exact placement, formatting rules, and examples for both paper types.

APA Title Page: Student Paper vs. Professional Paper

APA 7th edition distinguishes between two title page formats. Most college and university assignments use the student paper format. The professional paper format is used for manuscripts submitted for publication in academic journals.

APA Student Title Page: All Elements Explained

Paper Title

The paper title appears in the upper half of the title page, centered, in bold, in title case (capitalize the first letter of major words). The title should be concise and descriptive — APA recommends no more than 12 words. Do not underline or italicize the title. Do not use a period after the title.

If the title is long enough to require more than one line, double-space the lines and center them. The title should appear approximately 3–4 lines (about 1.5–2 inches) below the top margin.

Author Name

Your full name appears on the line below the title, centered and not bold. Use the format: First Name Last Name. Do not include titles (Dr., Ms., Prof.) or credentials (PhD, RN). If multiple authors contributed equally, list them in alphabetical order by last name, on the same line separated by commas, or on separate centered lines.

Affiliation

For a student paper, the affiliation is your department and your university or institution, listed on two separate centered lines below your name. Example:

Department of Psychology
University of Michigan

Course Name and Number

On the next line below the affiliation, list the course name and course number exactly as they appear in your course catalog or syllabus. Example: PSYC 301: Research Methods in Psychology.

Instructor Name

On the next line, list your instructor’s name with the appropriate title. Use whatever title your instructor uses: Professor Smith, Dr. Smith, or simply the name if they have specified a preference.

Due Date

On the next line, list the assignment due date in the format: Month Day, Year (e.g., March 23, 2026). Write out the month fully — do not use numbers or abbreviations.

Page Number

The title page is page 1. The page number appears in the top right corner of the header. Student papers do not include a running head — just the page number. In Word, go to Insert → Header → Edit Header and add a right-aligned automatic page number. Make sure «Different First Page» is NOT checked, so the page number appears on the title page too.

APA Student Title Page Example

Here is how a complete APA student title page looks, top to bottom, all text centered:

[Page number: 1 in top right header]

[3–4 blank lines from top margin]

The Relationship Between Sleep Duration and Academic Performance in First-Year University Students

Jane R. Smith

Department of Psychology
University of Michigan

PSYC 301: Research Methods in Psychology

Professor David Johnson

March 23, 2026

APA Professional Title Page Format

Professional papers (manuscripts submitted for publication) have a different title page format:

• Running head: The running head appears in the top left header on every page, in all capitals. It is an abbreviated title of no more than 50 characters (including spaces and punctuation). Format: Running head: ABBREVIATED TITLE (APA 6th ed.) or just ABBREVIATED TITLE (APA 7th ed. — the label «Running head:» was removed).
• Title: Same as student paper — bold, centered, title case, upper half of page.
• Author name: Same format.
• Affiliation: Institutional affiliation only (no department unless specifying a different unit). For multiple authors at different institutions, list each name followed by a superscript number, then the affiliations with matching superscripts.
• Author note: A paragraph at the bottom of the title page disclosing funding, conflicts of interest, ORCID IDs, and a correspondence contact.

APA Title Page in Microsoft Word: Step-by-Step

1. Set up the page: 1-inch margins all sides, Times New Roman 12pt, double spacing throughout.
2. Add the page number: Insert → Header → Edit Header. Right-align. Insert → Page Number → Current Position → Plain Number. Close the header.
3. Position the title: Press Enter 3–4 times from the top of the document body to move the title approximately 1.5–2 inches down. Then type your title in bold, centered, title case.
4. Add remaining elements: Press Enter once after the title (not double Enter — the text is already double-spaced). Type your name (centered, not bold). Continue with affiliation (two lines), course, instructor, date.
5. Check the spacing: All elements on the title page are double-spaced. There is no extra blank line between the title and your name, or between any elements — the double spacing throughout the document handles the visual separation.

The APA Format Template available on this site has the title page pre-formatted correctly. Download it and simply replace the placeholder text.

Common APA Title Page Mistakes

• Using the 6th edition format for student papers — APA 6th edition required a running head on student papers. APA 7th edition removed this requirement. Student papers in APA 7th edition do not use a running head — only a page number in the header.
• Including credentials after your name — Do not write Jane Smith, PhD or Jane Smith, RN on the title page. Author names do not include degrees or titles.
• Using a larger font for the title — The title is the same 12pt font as the rest of the paper. Bold formatting makes it stand out; a larger font size is not used.
• Not bolding the title — The paper title on the title page is bold. This is an APA 7th edition requirement (it was not required in the 6th edition).
• Putting the title on a separate page from the body — The title page is page 1. The abstract (if required) is page 2. The body begins on page 3 (or page 2 if no abstract). There is no blank page between the title page and the abstract or body.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does a student paper need a running head in APA 7th edition?

No. APA 7th edition (2020) removed the running head requirement for student papers. Student papers only need a page number in the top right header. Professional papers submitted for publication still require a running head.

Is the title page counted as page 1?

Yes. The title page is page 1. The page number 1 appears in the top right header of the title page. The abstract (if included) is page 2. The body of the paper begins on page 3 (or page 2 if there is no abstract).

What goes on the title page if I have two authors?

List both names on the same line, separated by «and» (not an ampersand): Jane Smith and Michael Johnson. If both authors are from the same department and institution, list the affiliation once below both names. If they are from different institutions, list each name followed by a superscript number, then the two affiliations with matching superscripts on the lines below.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• APA Headings: 5 Levels Explained
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide

APA 7th edition uses a five-level heading system to organize academic papers. Each level has specific formatting requirements, and using them correctly demonstrates that your paper is professionally structured. This guide explains every level of APA headings with exact formatting rules and examples.

APA Headings: All 5 Levels

APA Heading Level 1

Level 1 headings are used for major sections of the paper. They are centered, bold, and in title case (capitalize the first letter of major words). In a standard APA paper, Level 1 headings include the paper title on the first page of the body, Method, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and References.

Important rule: The introduction does not use the heading «Introduction.» Instead, the paper title, repeated at the top of the first body page, serves as the Level 1 heading for the introduction. This is one of the most commonly confused APA formatting rules.

Example Level 1 heading:
Method

APA Heading Level 2

Level 2 headings are used for subsections within a Level 1 section. They are left-aligned, bold, and italic, in title case. The text begins on the next line as a new paragraph with a standard first-line indent.

In the Method section, Level 2 headings typically include Participants, Materials, Measures, and Procedure. In the Discussion section, Level 2 headings might include Limitations, Implications, and Future Directions.

Example Level 2 heading:
Participants
(text begins here on the next line, indented)

APA Heading Level 3

Level 3 headings are used for subsections within a Level 2 section. They are left-aligned (not indented), bold, and italic, in title case, and end with a period. The paragraph text begins on the same line immediately after the period, not on a new line.

Example Level 3 heading:
Demographic characteristics. The sample consisted of 148 full-time employees aged 22–35…

APA Heading Level 4

Level 4 headings are used for subsections within a Level 3 section. They are indented 0.5 inches from the left margin, bold (but not italic), in title case, and end with a period. The paragraph text begins on the same line immediately after the period.

Example Level 4 heading:
    Age and gender distribution. Female participants (n = 82) ranged in age from 22 to 35…

APA Heading Level 5

Level 5 headings are used for the most specific subsection level. They are indented 0.5 inches, bold and italic, in title case, and end with a period. The paragraph text begins on the same line immediately after the period. Level 5 headings are rarely needed in student papers; they are more common in dissertation chapters or long empirical reports.

Example Level 5 heading:
    Gender breakdown by age group. Female participants in the 22–25 age cohort…

How Many Heading Levels Does a Student Paper Need?

Most undergraduate papers use only Level 1 headings. Most graduate research papers use Levels 1 and 2. Dissertations and longer empirical reports may use Levels 1, 2, and 3. Levels 4 and 5 are only needed for complex, multi-level structures that are rarely required in coursework.

APA requires that you use headings in order — you cannot skip from Level 1 to Level 3 without using Level 2. However, you can use only Level 1 or only Levels 1 and 2 if your paper’s structure doesn’t require deeper subdivision.

APA Paper Structure: Where Each Level Goes

Here is how a standard APA empirical paper is typically structured using headings:

[Paper Title] — Level 1 (serves as the Introduction heading)

Method — Level 1
Participants — Level 2
Materials — Level 2
Measures — Level 2
Primary outcome measure. — Level 3 (if the Measures section has subsections)
Procedure — Level 2

Results — Level 1
Descriptive Statistics — Level 2
Hypothesis Testing — Level 2

Discussion — Level 1
Limitations — Level 2
Implications — Level 2
Future Directions — Level 2

Conclusion — Level 1 (if separate from Discussion)

References — Level 1

APA Heading Formatting in Microsoft Word

To format APA headings correctly in Word without manually adjusting each one, use Word’s built-in paragraph styles. However, Word’s default Heading 1, Heading 2, etc. styles don’t match APA formatting — you’ll need to modify them.

Alternatively, the APA Format Template on this site has all five heading levels pre-formatted correctly. You can apply them by selecting text and clicking the appropriate style in Word’s Styles gallery, or simply type your headings using the exact formatting described above.

Common APA Heading Mistakes

• Using «Introduction» as a heading — APA does not use «Introduction» as a heading. The paper title on the first body page serves that function.
• Skipping heading levels — You must use levels in order. You cannot use Level 3 without Level 2.
• Centering Level 2 headings — Level 2 is left-aligned, not centered. Only Level 1 is centered.
• Not using a period for Levels 3, 4, and 5 — Levels 3, 4, and 5 end with a period, and the paragraph text begins on the same line. Levels 1 and 2 do not end with a period and are followed by text on the next line.
• Not bolding all headings — All five APA heading levels are bold. Levels 2, 3, and 5 are also italic. Only Level 4 is bold but not italic.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need to use all five APA heading levels?

No. Use only as many heading levels as your paper’s structure requires. Most student papers use one or two levels. Start with Level 1 for major sections. Add Level 2 if major sections have multiple named subsections. Only add Level 3 if those subsections need further subdivision. More levels than the structure requires creates unnecessary complexity.

What changed in APA 7th edition headings vs. 6th edition?

APA 7th edition simplified the heading system. In the 6th edition, Level 3 was bold (not italic), Level 4 was indented, bold, italic, and Level 5 was indented and italic only. The 7th edition made the formatting more consistent and easier to remember: all five levels are bold, levels 2, 3, and 5 add italic, and levels 3–5 run into the paragraph text.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• APA vs MLA: Key Differences

An annotated bibliography is more than a list of sources. It is a research tool that shows you—and your professor—that you have read, understood, and critically evaluated the sources you plan to use. This guide shows you exactly how to write an annotated bibliography in APA, MLA, and Chicago format, with complete examples for each.

What Is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a list of sources—books, articles, websites, and other materials—where each entry includes a citation followed by a paragraph (the annotation) that describes and evaluates the source. The annotation tells the reader what the source is about, how reliable or credible it is, and why it is (or is not) useful for your research.

Annotated bibliographies serve two purposes. As a standalone assignment, they demonstrate your ability to find, read, and evaluate sources. As a preparatory step, they are the research foundation for a literature review, research paper, or thesis.

Types of Annotations

• Descriptive (informative)—Summarizes the content of the source without evaluation. Answers: what does this source say? Used when the assignment asks only for summaries.
• Evaluative (critical)—Assesses the quality, reliability, and relevance of the source. Answers: is this source credible and useful for my research? Used when the assignment requires critical analysis.
• Combination—Summarizes and evaluates. This is the most common type requested in academic assignments. Each annotation describes the source and then assesses its value for your specific research question.

How to Write an Annotation: Step-by-Step

Most annotations are 100–200 words and cover four elements:

1. Summary—What is the source’s main argument or purpose? What does it cover? One to three sentences.
2. Authority/Credibility—Who wrote it? What are the author’s credentials? Where was it published? Is it peer-reviewed? One sentence.
3. Evaluation—What are the source’s strengths and limitations? Is the evidence convincing? Are there biases? One to two sentences.
4. Relevance—How does this source contribute to your specific research question or paper? One sentence.

Annotated Bibliography Examples by Citation Style

APA Annotated Bibliography Example

Brown, T., Williams, K., & Patel, S. (2023). Longitudinal effects of cognitive training on academic outcomes in underrepresented students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

This longitudinal study examined the effects of a 12-week cognitive training intervention on GPA and standardized test scores among first-generation college students. Using a randomized controlled design with 240 participants across four universities, the authors found significant improvements in working memory and academic performance in the intervention group compared to controls. The study is published in a peer-reviewed APA journal and the randomized design strengthens causal inference. The primary limitation is the homogeneous sample drawn from a single geographic region, which may limit generalizability. This source directly supports the section on evidence-based interventions for academic performance in first-generation students.

Formatting note: In APA, the annotation is indented 0.5 inches from the left margin (same as a regular paragraph). The citation uses standard APA reference list format. The entire entry is double-spaced.

MLA Annotated Bibliography Example

Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58.

Clarke argues that the proliferation of digital archives has not replaced the need for close reading but instead has shifted the nature of the skill required, from sustained textual analysis toward pattern recognition across large corpora. The author is a professor of English at a research university and the article is published in one of the field’s leading peer-reviewed journals. Clarke’s argument is lucidly structured but relies heavily on a small set of exemplary cases rather than systematic evidence. The article is particularly relevant to the section on methodology, where I argue that digital tools and traditional close reading are complementary rather than competing approaches.

Formatting note: In MLA, the citation uses standard Works Cited format with a hanging indent. The annotation is indented to align with the second line of the citation and written in continuous prose.

Chicago Annotated Bibliography Example

Smith, Jane. Advanced Research Methodology. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Smith provides a comprehensive methodological guide for graduate students conducting qualitative and mixed-methods research in the social sciences and humanities. Chapters four and five, covering thematic analysis and interview design respectively, are most directly relevant to this project. The author holds a distinguished professorship in research methods at a major research university and the book is widely assigned in graduate courses, lending it considerable authority. A potential limitation is that the book’s examples skew toward social science contexts and less frequently address humanistic inquiry. Despite this, the methodological framework Smith proposes adapts readily to humanities research and will inform the analytical approach used in this dissertation.

Annotated Bibliography Format Rules

APA Format

Heading: «Annotated Bibliography» or «Annotated References» — centered, bold. Citations follow APA 7th edition reference list format. Annotations are indented 0.5 inches. Entries are alphabetical by author’s last name. Double-spaced throughout with no extra line between entries.

MLA Format

Heading: «Annotated Works Cited» — centered, not bold. Citations follow MLA 9th edition Works Cited format with hanging indent. Annotations begin on the line immediately below the citation, indented to align with the hanging indent continuation. Entries are alphabetical. Double-spaced throughout.

Chicago Format

Heading: «Annotated Bibliography» — centered. Citations follow Chicago bibliography format (Notes-Bibliography system): hanging indent, periods between elements. Annotations follow immediately below the citation, double-spaced. Entries are alphabetical by author’s last name.

Common Annotated Bibliography Mistakes

• Writing only summaries—A descriptive-only annotation that never evaluates the source is incomplete for most assignments. Always check whether your assignment requires evaluation.
• Being too general—»This source is helpful for my research» is not an evaluation. Be specific: identify what aspect of the source is useful and why.
• Ignoring limitations—A credible annotation acknowledges the source’s weaknesses (limited sample, dated findings, theoretical bias) as well as its strengths.
• Using quotations in the annotation—Annotations should paraphrase and summarize in your own words. Direct quotes are rarely appropriate.
• Not linking to your research question—The annotation should explain specifically how the source contributes to your project, not just what the source is about.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should an annotation be?

Typically 100–200 words per annotation. Some assignments specify a target length; follow those instructions. Annotations should be dense with information — every sentence should either describe, evaluate, or connect the source to your research. Padding and vague praise waste words that should contain substantive analysis.

Is an annotated bibliography the same as a literature review?

No. An annotated bibliography lists sources individually, each with its own annotation. A literature review synthesizes sources thematically, discussing how they relate to each other and to your research question in continuous prose. An annotated bibliography is often a step toward writing the literature review; the two are different assignments with different structures.

Do I have to include every source I read?

Not necessarily. An annotated bibliography typically includes sources that are relevant to your research question. Sources you read and discarded as irrelevant are usually not included unless the assignment specifically asks for a comprehensive search record. Include sources that you are planning to use or that provide important context, even if you ultimately don’t cite them in the final paper.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step Guide
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• How to Cite in MLA: Complete Guide
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

APA and MLA are the two most widely required citation styles in academic writing, and students confuse them constantly. This guide gives you a clear, direct comparison of APA vs MLA — what each style looks like, where they differ, and which one your class most likely requires.

APA vs MLA: Quick Reference

Which Disciplines Use APA?

APA (American Psychological Association) is the standard citation style in psychology, education, social work, nursing, sociology, criminal justice, business, economics, and most other social science disciplines. If your course is in any of these fields, you almost certainly need APA format unless your professor specifies otherwise.

Which Disciplines Use MLA?

MLA (Modern Language Association) is the standard in English literature, literary criticism, comparative literature, language studies, cultural studies, and most other humanities disciplines. If your course is an English, literature, language, film, or art history course, you most likely need MLA unless your professor specifies otherwise.

APA vs MLA: In-Text Citations

This is the most visible difference between the two styles. APA uses author-date format; MLA uses author-page format.

Paraphrase

APA: (Smith, 2024)
MLA: (Smith 45)

Direct Quote

APA: (Smith, 2024, p. 45)
MLA: (Smith 45)

Author Named in Sentence

APA: Smith (2024) found that…
MLA: Smith argues that… (45).

Two Authors

APA: (Smith & Jones, 2024) — always ampersand inside parentheses
MLA: (Smith and Jones 78) — always «and»

Three or More Authors

APA: (Brown et al., 2023) — et al. from the first citation
MLA: (Brown et al. 112) — et al. from the first citation

No Page Number (Website)

APA: (Smith, 2024) — page number not needed for paraphrases
MLA: (Smith) — omit page reference entirely

APA vs MLA: Bibliography / Works Cited

The bibliography section has different names, different author formats, and different punctuation between the two styles.

Journal Article

APA: Brown, T. (2023). Cognitive flexibility and academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

MLA: Brown, Tom. «Cognitive Flexibility and Academic Resilience.» Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 115, no. 4, 2023, pp. 812–829.

Key differences: APA uses initials only (Brown, T.), year immediately after author, sentence case for article title, volume and issue formatted differently. MLA uses full first name, title in quotation marks (title case), year at the end.

Book

APA: Smith, K. (2024). Introduction to research design (3rd ed.). American Psychological Association.

MLA: Smith, Karen. Introduction to Research Design. 3rd ed., American Psychological Association, 2024.

Key differences: APA uses initials, year in parentheses after author, sentence case for book title, no city. MLA uses full first name, title in title case, edition before publisher, year at the end.

Website

APA: Smith, J. (2024, October 15). Understanding cognitive biases. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/example

MLA: Smith, John. «Understanding Cognitive Biases.» Psychology Today, 15 Oct. 2024, www.psychologytoday.com/example.

APA vs MLA: Document Format

Title Page

APA requires a title page with the paper title (bold, centered), your name, institutional affiliation, course name and number, instructor name, and due date. MLA does not use a title page — instead, a four-line header (your name, professor’s name, course, date) appears at the top left of the first page, followed by the centered title.

Abstract

APA papers typically include an abstract (150–250 words, on its own page, with a keywords line). MLA papers do not include abstracts.

Page Header

APA student papers: page number only in top right corner (no running head). MLA: last name and page number in top right corner (Smith 1, Smith 2, etc.).

Headings

APA has a formal five-level heading hierarchy. The introduction is not labeled «Introduction» — the paper title serves as the Level 1 heading. MLA does not require headings, though section headings (bold, flush left) are acceptable in longer papers.

Margins, Font, and Spacing

Both APA and MLA use: 1-inch margins, Times New Roman 12pt (or comparable serif font), and double spacing throughout. The only spacing difference is that APA does not add extra space between paragraphs (already double-spaced), while MLA follows the same rule. Both use a 0.5-inch first-line paragraph indent.

The Biggest APA vs MLA Mistakes

• Putting a comma before the page number in MLA — MLA is (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). Only APA uses a comma, and in APA you’re separating the author from the year, not the author from the page.
• Using the year in MLA citations — MLA in-text citations use the page number, not the year. The year appears only in the Works Cited entry.
• Omitting the year from APA in-text citations — APA requires the year every time: (Smith, 2024). Omitting it is one of the most common APA errors.
• Creating a title page for an MLA paper — MLA uses a header, not a title page.
• Calling the bibliography «Works Cited» in an APA paper — APA calls it «References.» MLA calls it «Works Cited.»
• Using «&» in the narrative text for APA — In APA, use «and» in sentences but «&» inside parentheses. In MLA, always use «and.»

When Would You Use Both?

Interdisciplinary courses sometimes require one style for citing social science sources and another for humanities sources — but this is rare, and your professor would specify it clearly. In practice, you will use one style per paper. When your paper draws on sources from multiple disciplines (common in interdisciplinary studies, cultural studies, or communication), use the style your department or your professor specifies, not the style of the source you’re citing.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is APA or MLA easier?

Most students find MLA slightly easier to learn because the in-text citation format is simpler — just author and page number, no year, no comma. APA has more components to remember (year in every in-text citation, different title formatting, title page, abstract) but is still straightforward once learned. The templates on this site give you a pre-formatted starting point for both.

Does APA or MLA use footnotes?

Neither APA nor MLA uses footnotes for citations — that is Chicago style. APA and MLA both use in-text parenthetical citations. APA and MLA may use footnotes (or endnotes) for supplementary commentary — additional information that would interrupt the flow of the text but is still worth including. These are not citation footnotes; they are content notes.

Can I switch between APA and MLA in the same paper?

No. Use one citation style consistently throughout the entire paper, including all in-text citations and the bibliography. Mixing styles within a single paper is a formatting error.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide with Examples
• How to Cite in MLA: Complete Guide with Examples

A literature review is not a summary of everything you read. It is an organized, analytical synthesis of the existing scholarship on your topic — one that identifies patterns, debates, gaps, and trajectories in the research and positions your own work within that conversation. If your literature review reads like a series of disconnected summaries, it is not doing its job. This guide shows you exactly how to write a literature review that functions as real scholarship.

What Is a Literature Review?

A literature review is a critical survey of the published research on a specific topic. It appears in three contexts: as a standalone assignment (a review article or seminar paper), as part of a research paper’s introduction, or as a full chapter in a thesis or dissertation. In all three contexts, the purpose is the same: to show that you understand the existing scholarship, to identify what is known and what remains unresolved, and to situate your research within that landscape.

The literature review answers the question: What do we already know about this topic, and why does your study need to exist? A good literature review makes the case that there is a genuine gap, debate, or unanswered question that your research addresses.

Types of Literature Reviews

Before you start, identify which type of literature review your assignment requires:

• Narrative review — The most common type in humanities and social sciences. You select and synthesize relevant sources thematically, without a systematic, reproducible search process.
• Systematic review — Used in medicine, public health, and evidence-based disciplines. Follows a strict, reproducible search protocol with explicit inclusion/exclusion criteria and a PRISMA flow diagram.
• Scoping review — Maps the breadth of a topic rather than assessing quality. Used when the field is new or poorly defined.
• Integrative review — Combines quantitative and qualitative studies to develop new conceptual frameworks.
• Theoretical review — Surveys the theoretical frameworks that have been applied to a problem, rather than empirical findings.

Most undergraduate and graduate course assignments require a narrative review. Dissertations in health, medicine, and policy fields often require systematic or scoping reviews. If your assignment doesn’t specify, confirm with your supervisor.

How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step

Step 1: Define your scope

Before searching for sources, define the boundaries of your review. What time period will you cover? Which disciplines? Which geographic contexts? Which types of studies (experimental, qualitative, theoretical)? A clear scope prevents you from drowning in tangentially related literature and keeps the review focused on what’s genuinely relevant to your research question.

Step 2: Search systematically

Use academic databases appropriate to your field: Google Scholar for broad coverage, PsycINFO for psychology, PubMed for medicine, JSTOR for humanities, Web of Science for STEM. Use Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) to refine your search. Keep a record of your search strings, databases, and dates — you may need to report this in a systematic review, and it helps you replicate the search if needed.

Prioritize peer-reviewed journal articles and books from academic publishers. Check the reference lists of key papers to find sources you may have missed («forward and backward citation chaining»). Aim to use sources published within the last 10 years unless a foundational earlier work is essential to your argument.

Step 3: Read critically, not passively

Reading for a literature review is different from reading to understand a topic. You are reading to evaluate: What claim is this source making? What evidence supports it? What are the limitations? How does it relate to the other sources you’ve read? Does it agree or disagree, extend or contradict, refine or challenge earlier work?

Take notes with a consistent structure: source, main argument, methods (if applicable), key findings, limitations, and how it connects to your research question. A synthesis matrix — a table with sources as rows and themes as columns — is an effective tool for spotting patterns across sources.

Step 4: Identify themes, patterns, and gaps

This is the step that transforms a summary into a literature review. Look across your sources for: themes that appear repeatedly, debates where scholars disagree, methodological trends or limitations across the field, contradictions in the evidence, and gaps — questions no one has answered, populations no one has studied, or methods no one has applied.

These themes and gaps become the sections of your literature review. You are not organizing by source («Smith argues X, Jones argues Y, Brown argues Z»). You are organizing by idea («Research on X consistently finds that…, however, studies disagree about…»).

Step 5: Choose an organizational structure

There are three main ways to organize a literature review:

• Thematic — Group sources by the themes, concepts, or issues they address. This is the most common structure for narrative reviews and the most effective for demonstrating synthesis. Each section covers a theme across multiple sources, rather than covering one source at a time.
• Chronological — Trace how thinking on the topic has evolved over time. Useful when the historical development of a debate or theory is itself significant to your argument.
• Methodological — Group sources by their research methods (quantitative vs. qualitative, experimental vs. observational). Useful in fields where methodological debates are central, or in the methods section of a dissertation literature review.

Most literature reviews combine approaches: a broadly thematic structure with chronological ordering within each theme, or methodological grouping within a thematic framework.

Step 6: Write the literature review

A literature review has three parts: an introduction, a body organized by your chosen structure, and a conclusion.

Introduction: State the topic and scope of the review. Explain the organizational approach and why you chose it. Preview the main themes or trajectory you will trace.

Body: Each section covers one theme or aspect of the literature. Begin each section with a topic sentence that states the theme. Then synthesize multiple sources around that theme, showing how they relate to each other — who agrees, who disagrees, who built on whom. Do not summarize sources one by one. Compare, contrast, and connect them.

Conclusion: Summarize the state of the field. Identify the key gap, debate, or limitation that your research addresses. This is where the literature review transitions to your research question or hypothesis: «Given these gaps in the existing research, the present study aims to…»

Literature Review Example Paragraph

Here is an example of a synthesized literature review paragraph (social sciences topic):

Weak version (summary, not synthesis):
Smith (2022) studied the relationship between social media use and self-esteem in adolescents. She found that heavy social media use was associated with lower self-esteem. Jones and Brown (2023) also studied this topic and found similar results. Davis (2024) conducted a longitudinal study and found that the effect was stronger among girls.

Strong version (synthesis):
Cross-sectional research consistently demonstrates a negative association between heavy social media use and self-esteem in adolescents (Smith, 2022; Jones & Brown, 2023), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate (r = −0.18 to −0.34). Davis’s (2024) longitudinal work extends these findings by showing that the relationship is stronger and more durable among girls than boys, suggesting that platform-specific social comparison dynamics — particularly image-focused content — may drive the effect. However, the mechanisms underlying the gender difference remain poorly understood, as the existing studies did not measure specific platform usage or the nature of social comparison activity.

The strong version synthesizes three sources into a single argument, quantifies the effect, identifies an emerging finding (gender difference), and ends by pointing toward a gap in the evidence. That gap motivates the next section or the research question.

Common Literature Review Mistakes

• Summarizing instead of synthesizing — A list of summaries is not a literature review. Synthesis means identifying how sources relate to each other, not just what each one says.
• Organizing by source — Avoid the «Smith says X, Jones says Y, Brown says Z» structure. Organize by theme, not by author.
• Including sources that aren’t relevant — Every source in the literature review should directly connect to your research question. Tangentially related sources inflate word count without strengthening the review.
• Only including sources that agree with your position — A literature review must engage with contradictory evidence and dissenting views. Ignoring them weakens your credibility.
• Failing to identify the gap — The literature review must show why your research is necessary. If you don’t identify a gap, your research has no justification.
• Using too many direct quotes — Literature reviews should be primarily paraphrase and synthesis. Reserve direct quotes for particularly significant formulations that cannot be paraphrased without loss of meaning.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many sources should a literature review include?

There is no universal minimum or maximum. A short (2,000-word) literature review section in a research paper might cite 15–25 sources. A dissertation literature review chapter might cite 50–150 sources depending on the field and scope. What matters is comprehensiveness within your defined scope — you should be able to demonstrate that you have surveyed the relevant scholarship, not that you have hit a number.

How is a literature review different from an annotated bibliography?

An annotated bibliography lists sources with a brief summary and evaluation of each one — it is organized by source. A literature review is written as continuous prose organized by themes, synthesizing sources into a coherent argument about the state of the field. An annotated bibliography is often a preparatory step toward writing the literature review.

How recent do my sources need to be?

As a general rule, prioritize sources published within the last 10 years for empirical claims, and within the last 5 years for rapidly evolving fields (technology, medicine, public health). Seminal or foundational works can be older if they are genuinely foundational to the field — citing a 1979 theory that is still the dominant framework is appropriate; citing a 1979 empirical study as if its findings are current is not.

Can I use the same sources in my literature review and my reference list?

Yes — every source cited in the literature review must appear in your reference list, and conversely, every source in your reference list should be cited somewhere in the paper. The literature review draws on the same pool of sources as the rest of the paper; it doesn’t have its own separate reference list.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper: Complete Guide
• How to Write an Abstract: Examples for Every Paper Type
• How to Write a Thesis Statement
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

The abstract is the most-read part of any academic paper — and often the most poorly written. Readers use the abstract to decide whether the full paper is worth their time. If your abstract is vague, disorganized, or simply a copy of your introduction, it fails at its only job. This guide shows you exactly how to write an abstract for any type of academic paper, with examples you can model directly.

What Is an Abstract?

An abstract is a concise, standalone summary of a research paper, thesis, dissertation, or article. It appears at the beginning of the paper — after the title page and before the introduction — and gives readers enough information to understand what the paper is about, why it matters, what was done, what was found, and what it means. In most academic formats (APA, Chicago, many journals), the abstract is a single paragraph of 150–250 words.

The abstract is not an introduction. The introduction is the first section of your paper and leads the reader into your argument. The abstract is a separate, complete summary that stands alone — a reader should be able to understand the paper’s purpose and findings without reading anything else.

What to Include in an Abstract

Despite differences in length and format across disciplines, most academic abstracts answer five questions in order:

1. Problem / background — What issue or gap does this paper address? One or two sentences of context.
2. Purpose / objective — What is this paper trying to do? State your research question, aim, or hypothesis.
3. Methods — How did you do it? Briefly describe your approach, data sources, or methodology.
4. Results / findings — What did you find? This is the most important part — state your actual results, not just that you found them.
5. Conclusion / implications — What does it mean? One sentence on the significance, implications, or applications of the findings.

Not every abstract covers all five elements equally. Empirical research papers (psychology, biology, medicine) emphasize methods and results. Theoretical and humanities papers may spend more space on the argument and less on methods. Literature reviews emphasize scope and conclusions. Know which type of paper you’re writing and adjust accordingly.

How to Write an Abstract: Step-by-Step

Step 1: Write the abstract last

You cannot write a good abstract before you have finished the paper. The abstract summarizes work that is complete. If you write it first, you will either be vague or you will write a plan rather than a summary. Wait until the paper is drafted, then write the abstract in a single session using the finished paper as your source.

Step 2: Identify the one sentence for each element

Go through your finished paper and write one sentence that answers each of the five questions: What problem? What purpose? What method? What result? What conclusion? These five sentences are your abstract’s skeleton. You now have something to edit rather than a blank page.

Step 3: Expand to the required word count

APA 7th edition recommends 150–250 words. Journals typically specify 150–300 words. Dissertations sometimes allow up to 350. Use additional sentences to add necessary detail to the elements that matter most for your paper type. Empirical papers need specific results («The intervention reduced anxiety scores by 23%, p = .002»). Theoretical papers need the main claim. Do not pad with background or context that is not essential.

Step 4: Write in past tense for completed work

The methods and results sections of an abstract are written in the past tense because the research is complete: «We collected data from 120 participants» and «The analysis revealed…» The introduction sentence (context) and conclusion (implications) may use the present tense: «This study addresses…» and «These findings suggest…»

Step 5: Cut ruthlessly

Every sentence in the abstract must earn its place. Remove background that the reader doesn’t need to understand the purpose. Remove methodological detail that doesn’t affect the interpretation of the results. Remove hedges and filler phrases («This paper attempts to…», «It is hoped that…»). What remains should be dense with information — every sentence should advance the reader’s understanding of the paper.

Step 6: Check for common abstract errors

Before finalizing, verify: no citations (abstracts do not cite sources), no abbreviations undefined in the abstract itself, no information not present in the paper, accurate reflection of what the paper actually concludes, and compliance with your journal’s or institution’s word limit.

Abstract Examples by Paper Type

Empirical Research Paper (Psychology / Social Science)

Chronic stress is a known risk factor for cognitive decline, but the mechanisms through which occupational stress affects working memory in young adults remain poorly understood. This study investigated the relationship between self-reported occupational stress and working memory performance in full-time employees aged 22–35. Participants (N = 148) completed the Perceived Stress Scale and two validated working memory tasks (n-back and digit span). Results indicated a significant negative correlation between stress scores and both n-back accuracy (r = −0.43, p < .001) and digit span performance (r = −0.37, p = .002). The relationship remained significant after controlling for sleep quality and physical activity. These findings suggest that occupational stress impairs working memory performance in young adults independently of lifestyle factors, with implications for workplace wellness interventions targeting cognitive health.

Word count: 148. Notice: Each of the five elements is present. The results section states specific numbers, not just «results were significant.» The conclusion identifies an implication, not just a plan for future research.

Literature Review

The relationship between sleep deprivation and academic performance in university students has received substantial research attention since 2010, yet the literature remains fragmented across disciplines and inconsistent in its findings regarding threshold effects. This review synthesizes 47 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025, examining the effects of sleep duration and quality on GPA, exam performance, and cognitive test scores. The review identifies three consistent findings across the literature: sleep durations below 6 hours are associated with measurable academic performance decrements; the effect is stronger for objective cognitive measures than for self-reported GPA; and first-year students show greater vulnerability than upper-year students. However, significant heterogeneity in measurement instruments and population characteristics limits generalization. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs with standardized sleep measurement to establish causal evidence for the relationship.

Humanities / Argumentative Paper

Scholarship on Toni Morrison’s Beloved has consistently interpreted the novel’s ghost as a figure of historical trauma and collective memory. This paper argues that this reading, while generative, has obscured an equally important dimension of the text: Morrison’s ghost functions not only as a memorial but as a critique of the limits of narrative itself as a vehicle for traumatic experience. Through close analysis of three narrative disruptions in the novel — the fragmented chronology, the shift to second-person address in Beloved’s monologue, and the deliberate gap in the Middle Passage passage — this paper demonstrates that Morrison uses these formal strategies to stage the failure of conventional storytelling to contain or transmit the experience of slavery. The argument challenges dominant trauma theory frameworks that position narrative as the primary means of healing and recovery.

Scientific / Lab Report

Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli represents a growing public health concern, with resistance rates to first-line antibiotics increasing annually in clinical settings. This study examined the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of three common antibiotics (ampicillin, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin) against 24 E. coli isolates from local wastewater samples. Standard broth microdilution assays were performed in triplicate following CLSI guidelines. Results showed that 71% of isolates demonstrated resistance to ampicillin (MIC ≥ 32 μg/mL), 46% to tetracycline, and 17% to ciprofloxacin. Multi-drug resistance (resistance to two or more antibiotics) was observed in 42% of isolates. These findings indicate a high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in wastewater, with implications for downstream contamination of water supplies and the need for enhanced monitoring protocols.

Abstract Format Rules by Citation Style

APA 7th Edition Abstract Format

The abstract appears on page 2, after the title page. The heading «Abstract» is centered and bold. The text is a single paragraph, not indented. Word limit: 150–250 words. Below the abstract, add a keywords line: the word Keywords in italics, followed by a colon, then 3–5 lowercase keywords separated by commas. No citations in the abstract. No abbreviations unless defined within the abstract.

Structured Abstracts (Medical / Clinical Research)

Many medical journals and some social science journals require a structured abstract — one with explicit labeled sections rather than a single paragraph. Common section labels are: Objective, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Some journals use: Background, Aims, Methods, Results, Discussion. Always follow the specific journal’s author guidelines for structured abstract format. The content in each section is the same as described above; only the presentation changes.

Dissertation Abstract

Dissertation abstracts are longer than paper abstracts — typically 300–350 words, with some institutions allowing up to 500. The dissertation abstract must cover all five elements but in more detail, and often includes a brief statement of the dissertation’s contribution to the field. ProQuest (which archives most North American dissertations) limits the abstract to 350 words for the database entry.

Common Abstract Mistakes

• Announcing instead of summarizing — «This paper will examine…» is an announcement. «This study found…» is a summary. Write the abstract in the past tense, reporting what was done and found.
• Omitting the results — The most common and damaging mistake. «The results supported the hypothesis» tells the reader nothing. State the actual finding: «Participants in the intervention group showed a 34% reduction in reported symptoms.»
• Repeating the introduction — The abstract is not a longer version of your first paragraph. It covers the entire paper — including methods, results, and conclusions — in miniature.
• Including citations — Abstracts do not cite sources. If you need to reference another study, paraphrase without attribution.
• Exceeding the word limit — Word limits are strict. If your abstract is 280 words and the limit is 250, you must cut 30 words, not ask for an exception.
• Writing it first — You cannot accurately summarize a paper you haven’t finished. Write the abstract last.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should an abstract be?

For most academic papers: 150–250 words in APA format. Journal articles vary — most are 150–300 words; always check the specific journal’s guidelines. Dissertations: 300–350 words typically, up to 500 for some institutions. Conference abstracts can be as short as 100–150 words. Structured abstracts in medical journals average 250–300 words across their labeled sections.

Should an abstract be in first person or third person?

This depends on the discipline. Social sciences and STEM fields following APA style now accept first person: «We recruited 120 participants» and «We found that…» Humanities papers often use third person or passive voice. When writing for a specific journal, follow its style guide. When writing for a course, follow your professor’s instructions or the citation style being used.

Do all papers need an abstract?

Not always. Short undergraduate essays typically don’t require abstracts. APA 7th edition student paper guidelines make abstracts optional unless specifically required by the instructor. Journal articles, theses, dissertations, and longer research papers almost always require one. Check your assignment instructions or the submission guidelines for your target journal.

Can I use the same text in my abstract and my introduction?

No. The abstract and introduction serve different functions and should not share text. The introduction is a full section that contextualizes the paper and leads into the argument. The abstract is a standalone summary of the entire paper. Some overlap in the problem statement sentence is acceptable, but copy-pasting is not. Many plagiarism detection tools also flag self-plagiarism within the same document if the same passage appears verbatim in two places.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper: Complete Guide
• How to Write a Thesis Statement: Examples for Every Essay Type
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide

Turabian style is the student-focused adaptation of Chicago style. If your professor requires Turabian format, this page gives you a ready-to-use Turabian format template for Word — download it, replace the placeholder content, and submit. Because Turabian and Chicago use identical citation formats, this template works for both.

Download Turabian Format Template for Word

The template uses the Notes-Bibliography (NB) system — the version required in most humanities courses. It includes a title page, double-spaced body with five working footnotes, a sample data table, and a bibliography with nine formatted entries.

Free download · Turabian 9th edition · Microsoft Word compatible · No registration needed

Turabian vs. Chicago: What Is the Difference?

Turabian style is based directly on The Chicago Manual of Style. The citation formats are identical — Notes-Bibliography footnotes and bibliography entries in Turabian follow exactly the same rules as Chicago. When your professor says «Chicago/Turabian» or simply «Turabian,» they mean the same citation system.

The only practical differences are in document formatting for student papers: Turabian’s title page places the paper title roughly one-third down the page and groups the student’s name, course, instructor, institution, and date in the lower third. Turabian also includes specific guidance for theses and dissertations that Chicago’s professional-focused manual does not address in as much detail.

Turabian Format Requirements

Page Setup and Typography

Turabian papers use US Letter paper (8.5 × 11 inches) with 1-inch margins on all sides. Some institutions require a left margin of 1.25 to 1.5 inches for bound theses — check your institution’s submission guidelines. Font is Times New Roman 12pt throughout. All text is double-spaced. The first line of each paragraph is indented 0.5 inches. Do not add extra spacing between paragraphs.

Title Page

The Turabian title page is not numbered. The paper title appears centered, roughly one-third of the way down the page. In the lower third, centered, include your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, your institution, and the date. The title page does not carry a page number. Body text begins on page 1.

Page Numbers

Page numbers appear in the top right corner of every page except the title page. In Word, set this as a right-aligned header with an automatic page number field. If your paper has a table of contents or other front matter, those pages typically use Roman numerals (i, ii, iii); Arabic numerals begin with the first page of text.

Footnotes in Turabian

Turabian NB system citations appear as numbered footnotes at the bottom of the page where the citation occurs. The first citation of each source gives the full details. All subsequent citations of the same source use the shortened form: Last Name, Shortened Title, page. Footnote text is single-spaced at 10pt, with a separator line above the footnote area.

Bibliography

The bibliography appears on a new page with the centered heading «Bibliography.» Entries are double-spaced, listed alphabetically by first author’s last name, with a hanging indent. Note that bibliography entries look different from footnote entries: the first author’s name is inverted (Last, First), and the punctuation between elements uses periods rather than commas.

Turabian Citation Formats with Examples

Book — First Footnote

1. Jane Smith, Advanced Research Methodology (New York: Routledge, 2023), 45.

Book — Subsequent Footnote (Short Form)

3. Smith, Advanced Research, 78.

Book — Bibliography Entry

Smith, Jane. Advanced Research Methodology. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Journal Article — First Footnote

2. John Brown and Mary Davis, «Digital Scholarship in the Humanities,» Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 3 (2024): 112.

Journal Article — Bibliography Entry

Brown, John, and Mary Davis. «Digital Scholarship in the Humanities.» Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 3 (2024): 108–125.

Chapter in Edited Volume — First Footnote

4. Emily Clarke, «Methodology in Practice,» in Handbook of Academic Writing, ed. Robert Hall (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022), 203.

Website — First Footnote

5. Susan Lee, «Primary Sources Online,» Humanities Digital Archive, January 15, 2026, https://www.example.edu/primary-sources.

How to Use the Turabian Template: Step-by-Step

1. Fill in the title page — Replace the paper title, your name, course, instructor, institution, and date.
2. Write your text — Where you need a citation, place your cursor just before the period at the end of the sentence, then go to References → Insert Footnote in Word. A superscript number appears in the text and a matching footnote area opens at the bottom of the page.
3. Type the full footnote — For the first citation of each source, use the full format shown above. For any subsequent citation of the same source, use the shortened form: Last Name, Short Title, page.
4. Replace the sample table — In Turabian, tables have their number and title above the table (Table 1. Title) and source notes below.
5. Build your bibliography — On the final page, list all cited sources alphabetically. Remember the formatting differences from footnotes: inverted first-author name, periods between elements instead of commas, no page number at the end of book entries.

Common Turabian Format Mistakes

• Confusing footnote and bibliography punctuation — Footnotes use commas between elements: Author, Title (Place: Publisher, Year), page. Bibliography entries use periods: Author. Title. Place: Publisher, Year.
• Repeating the full footnote — After the first full citation, always use the short form for subsequent references to the same source.
• Misusing ibid. — Ibid. is only correct when the immediately preceding footnote cites the exact same source and page. Many instructors now prefer the short form throughout — check your course guidelines.
• Paginating the title page — The title page does not carry a page number.
• Single-spacing the bibliography — The bibliography is double-spaced, same as the body text.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is Turabian the same as Chicago style?

The citation formats are identical. Turabian is a student-focused adaptation of The Chicago Manual of Style, so footnote and bibliography entries follow exactly the same rules. If your professor says «Chicago/Turabian» or just «Turabian,» this template is appropriate.

Which edition of Turabian should I use?

The current edition is the 9th (2018), titled A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Most universities accept either the 8th or 9th edition — citation formats changed minimally between them. If your institution specifies an edition, follow that one.

Does Turabian have an Author-Date system?

Yes. Like Chicago, Turabian has both a Notes-Bibliography system (used in history, literature, and the arts) and an Author-Date system (used in some social sciences). The template uses Notes-Bibliography. If your course requires Author-Date, the parenthetical format is (Smith 2024, 45), and sources go in a reference list rather than a bibliography.

Can I use this template for a thesis or dissertation?

The template covers the core formatting requirements that apply to seminar papers and shorter theses. For a full dissertation, your institution will likely have additional formatting requirements — specific margin widths for binding, abstract pages, table of contents formatting, and more. Use this template as a starting point and supplement it with your institution’s specific dissertation guidelines.

Related Resources

• Chicago Style Template Word — Free Download
• APA Format Template Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA — Complete Guide

MLA format is the standard citation style for English literature, languages, film, and most humanities disciplines. If your professor requires MLA and you need to know exactly how to cite every type of source you might use, this guide gives you copy-ready examples for every format — from journal articles and books to websites, videos, and social media posts.

All examples follow MLA 9th edition (2021), the current standard. Key differences from the 8th edition are noted where relevant.

MLA Citation: Two Parts That Must Always Match

Like all academic citation systems, MLA has two linked components:

• In-text citation — a brief parenthetical reference in the body of your paper
• Works Cited entry — a full citation on the Works Cited page at the end

Every source cited in the text must appear in Works Cited. Every entry in Works Cited must be cited at least once in the text. Works Cited is not a bibliography of everything you read — only sources you actually used.

MLA In-Text Citations: The Author-Page Format

MLA uses the author-page format. The author’s last name and the page number appear in parentheses, with no comma between them. The citation goes before the closing punctuation of the sentence.

One Author

Parenthetical: (Smith 45)
Author named in sentence: Smith argues that… (45).
Direct quote: Smith argues that «the tension is unresolvable» (45).

Two Authors

(Smith and Jones 78)
Smith and Jones argue that… (78).

Three or More Authors

Use the first author’s name followed by «et al.»:
(Brown et al. 112)

No Page Number (Websites, Some E-books)

Omit the page reference entirely — use only the author name:
(Johnson)
If the source has numbered paragraphs, use «par.»: (Johnson, par. 4)
If it has sections, use the section name: (Johnson, «Introduction»)

No Author

Use a shortened version of the title. Italicise book and website titles; put article titles in quotation marks:
Book or website: (Merriam-Webster’s 45)
Article: («MLA Format Guide» 3)

Two Works by the Same Author

Add a shortened title to distinguish them:
(Smith, «Article Title» 45)
(Smith, Book Title 112)

Two Authors with the Same Last Name

Add a first initial:
(J. Smith 45) and (M. Smith 23)

Entire Work (No Specific Page)

Just the author name in parentheses, or name them in the sentence with no parenthetical:
(Morrison)
As Morrison demonstrates throughout Beloved…

Indirect Source (Quoting a Quote)

If Smith quotes Jones and you want to use Jones’s words from Smith’s text:
(qtd. in Smith 45)
«Qtd. in» stands for «quoted in.» In Works Cited, include only Smith — the source you actually read.

Direct Quotes in MLA

Short quote (four lines or fewer): Enclose in quotation marks within the text. Citation goes before the closing punctuation.
Clarke argues that «close reading remains the essential skill» (52).

Long quote (more than four lines of prose, more than three lines of poetry): Use a block quotation. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin. Do not use quotation marks. Place the citation after the final punctuation — the opposite of short quotes. Introduce with a complete sentence ending in a colon:

Clarke summarises the problem as follows:

The difficulty with digital archives is not access but interpretation. Scholars can now retrieve texts that were previously inaccessible, but the critical frameworks for reading those texts have not kept pace with the volume of newly available material. (Clarke 89)

Poetry: Reproduce line breaks with a forward slash (/) for short quotes: «I heard a Fly buzz / when I died» (Dickinson 3-4). For longer poetry quotes, use a block quotation as above.

MLA Works Cited: The Container System

MLA 9th edition uses a flexible «container» system. Every source lives inside a container — a journal is the container for an article; a website is the container for a web page; an anthology is the container for a poem. Some sources have two containers (e.g., an article in a journal accessed through a database).

The nine core elements, in order, are: Author. Title of Source. Title of Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication Date, Location.

Not every element applies to every source — omit elements that don’t exist for your source. Each element is followed by a comma except the last, which ends with a period.

How to Cite a Journal Article in MLA

Format: Last, First. «Title of Article.» Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Year, pp. ##–##.

One author:
Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58.

Two authors:
Smith, Karen, and Robert Park. «Rhetoric and Academic Prose.» College English, vol. 85, no. 3, 2023, pp. 201–218.

Three or more authors:
Brown, Tom, et al. «Contextual Factors in Academic Writing.» Journal of Writing Research, vol. 15, no. 2, 2024, pp. 89–115.

Article accessed through a database (two containers):
Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/example.

Article with DOI:
Thompson, Rachel. «Citation Practices in Undergraduate Writing.» Pedagogy, vol. 23, no. 1, 2023, pp. 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1215/000000000.

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Format: Last, First. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.

Single author:
Johnson, Michael. The Art of Literary Analysis. Oxford UP, 2022.

Two authors:
Smith, Karen, and Michael Johnson. Writing in the Disciplines. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2023.

Three or more authors:
Brown, Tom, et al. The Handbook of Academic Writing. Routledge, 2022.

Edited book:
Hall, Robert, editor. New Approaches to Literary Theory. Cambridge UP, 2023.

Chapter in an edited book:
Clarke, Emily. «Digital Editions and Close Reading.» New Approaches to Literary Theory, edited by Robert Hall, Cambridge UP, 2023, pp. 45–67.

Book with edition:
Modern Language Association. MLA Handbook. 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

Translation:
Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Translated by Susan Bernofsky, W. W. Norton, 2014.

Publisher abbreviations in MLA 9th edition: Abbreviate common publishers: «Oxford UP» not «Oxford University Press»; «U of Chicago P» not «University of Chicago Press.»

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Format: Last, First. «Title of Page.» Name of Site, Publisher or Sponsor, Day Month Year, URL.

With author and date:
Smith, Jane. «Understanding Unreliable Narrators.» Literary Hub, 15 Jan. 2024, lithub.com/example.

Organisation as author:
Modern Language Association. «MLA Style Introduction.» MLA Style Center, style.mla.org/example.

No author:
«Guide to Literary Analysis.» Purdue OWL, Purdue University, 10 Feb. 2024, owl.purdue.edu/example.

No date:
Smith, Jane. «Title of Page.» Site Name, url.com/example. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Note on access dates: Include an access date only when the source has no publication date or when the content may change over time. Format: Accessed Day Month Year.

How to Cite a YouTube Video or Online Video in MLA

Format: Last, First, or «Channel Name.» «Title of Video.» YouTube, Day Month Year, URL.

Known creator:
Smith, John. «How to Write a Literary Analysis.» YouTube, 20 Feb. 2024, youtube.com/watch?v=example.

Channel name only:
Literature Explained. «Shakespeare’s Tragedies: An Overview.» YouTube, 12 June 2024, youtube.com/watch?v=example.

TED Talk (from TED website):
Brown, Brené. «The Power of Vulnerability.» TED, June 2010, ted.com/talks/example.

Film or documentary on streaming:
The Social Dilemma. Directed by Jeff Orlowski, Exposure Labs, 2020. Netflix, netflix.com/title/81254224.

How to Cite a Podcast in MLA

Podcast episode:
Host Name. «Episode Title.» Podcast Name, episode #, Production Company, Day Month Year, URL.

Example:
Raz, Guy. «The Science of Habit Formation.» How I Built This, episode 412, NPR, 15 Sept. 2023, npr.org/podcasts/example.

How to Cite Social Media in MLA

Tweet / X post:
Last, First [@username]. «Full text of tweet if under 280 characters.» X, Day Month Year, URL.

Smith, John [@johnsmith]. «New study confirms link between sleep quality and academic performance.» X, 5 Mar. 2024, x.com/johnsmith/status/example.

Instagram post:
American Psychological Association [@APAstyle]. «New citation guidelines now available on our website.» Instagram, 20 Jan. 2024, instagram.com/p/example.

How to Cite a Film in MLA

Feature film (cinema release):
Inception. Directed by Christopher Nolan, Warner Bros. Pictures, 2010.

Film — focusing on a specific person’s contribution:
Nolan, Christopher, director. Inception. Warner Bros. Pictures, 2010.

Film on streaming:
Roma. Directed by Alfonso Cuarón, Participant Media, 2018. Netflix, netflix.com/title/80240715.

How to Cite a TV Show in MLA

Whole series:
Breaking Bad. Created by Vince Gilligan, AMC, 2008–2013.

Single episode:
«Ozymandias.» Breaking Bad, directed by Rian Johnson, season 5, episode 14, AMC, 15 Sept. 2013.

How to Cite a Poem in MLA

Poem from an anthology:
Dickinson, Emily. «Because I could not stop for Death.» The Norton Anthology of American Literature, edited by Robert S. Levine, 9th ed., Norton, 2017, pp. 1187–1188.

Poem from a single-author collection:
Hughes, Langston. «Harlem.» The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, edited by Arnold Rampersad, Knopf, 1994, p. 426.

In-text citation for poems: Use line numbers instead of page numbers, introduced by «line» or «lines» the first time:
(Dickinson, lines 1–2)
(Dickinson 5–6) — subsequent citations

How to Cite a Newspaper Article in MLA

Online newspaper:
Brown, Tom. «Study Finds Exercise Improves Classroom Performance.» The New York Times, 10 Dec. 2024, nytimes.com/example.

Print newspaper:
Brown, Tom. «Study Finds Exercise Improves Classroom Performance.» The New York Times, 10 Dec. 2024, p. B4.

How to Cite a Government Document or Report in MLA

United States, Department of Education. The Condition of Education 2024. National Center for Education Statistics, 2024, nces.ed.gov/example.

World Health Organization. Global Health Report 2024. WHO Press, 2024, who.int/example.

How to Cite an Interview in MLA

Published interview:
Morrison, Toni. «The Art of Fiction No. 134.» Interview by Elissa Schappell. The Paris Review, no. 128, Fall 1993, pp. 83–125.

Interview you conducted yourself:
Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 10 Mar. 2026.

MLA Works Cited: Formatting Rules

• Starts on a new page with centered heading «Works Cited» (not bold, not underlined)
• All entries double-spaced — no extra line between entries
• Hanging indent: first line flush left, all subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches
• Alphabetical by first element (usually author’s last name, or title if no author)
• First author inverted (Last, First); all additional authors in normal order (First Last)
• Two authors joined by «and»; three or more use the first author «et al.»
• Titles: italicise containers (books, journals, websites, films); put source titles in quotation marks (articles, chapters, episodes)
• Abbreviate months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.
• Abbreviate publishers when standard (Oxford UP, MIT P, U of Chicago P)

Common MLA Citation Mistakes

• Adding a comma between author and page number — MLA uses (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). No comma.
• Adding «p.» before the page number in in-text citations — Write (Smith 45), not (Smith p. 45). The «pp.» abbreviation is used only in Works Cited for page ranges.
• Bolding or underlining the paper title — The title on the first page of an MLA paper is in plain title case — no formatting.
• Using a title page — MLA does not use a separate title page. The four-line header appears at the top left of page 1.
• Not inverting only the first author’s name — In Works Cited, only the first author is inverted (Last, First). Additional authors are normal order: Brown, Tom, and Jane Smith.
• Forgetting the hanging indent in Works Cited — Every Works Cited entry must have a hanging indent.
• Including sources not cited in the paper — Works Cited contains only sources you actually used. Everything else belongs in a separate «Works Consulted» list if needed.
• Using «ibid.» — MLA does not use ibid. Repeat the author and page number every time.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need a page number in every MLA in-text citation?

No — only when the source has page numbers. For websites, social media, and most online sources that don’t have stable page numbers, omit the page reference and use only the author name: (Smith). If the source has numbered paragraphs or sections, you can use «par. 4» or the section heading instead.

How do I cite a website in MLA when there’s no author?

Start the Works Cited entry with the title of the page in quotation marks. In the in-text citation, use a shortened version of the title: («MLA Format Guide») if no page number, or («MLA Format Guide» 3) if there is one. Never use the URL as the citation.

What’s the difference between a Works Cited and a Works Consulted page in MLA?

Works Cited lists only sources you cited in the paper. Works Consulted includes sources you read but didn’t cite. Most MLA papers require only a Works Cited. Check your assignment instructions — if in doubt, use Works Cited and include only sources that appear as in-text citations.

How do I format a block quote in MLA?

For quotations longer than four lines of prose or three lines of poetry: start on a new line, indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, do not use quotation marks, maintain double spacing, and place the citation after the final period. Introduce the block quotation with a complete sentence ending in a colon.

Do I need an access date for websites in MLA?

Only when the content has no publication date or is likely to change. For most stable web pages with clear publication dates, the access date is optional. Format: Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

How do I cite a source with no date in MLA?

Simply omit the date from the Works Cited entry and add an access date at the end: Accessed 16 Mar. 2026. In the in-text citation, use the author name (or title if no author) as usual.

What changed in MLA 9th edition vs. 8th edition?

The 9th edition (2021) added a full chapter on inclusive language, explicitly endorsed the use of section headings in longer papers, clarified table formatting (label and title above the table), simplified URL formatting, and updated publisher abbreviations. The core container system and in-text citation format remained the same as the 8th edition.

Related Resources

• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
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