Categoría: Normas APA

APA 7th edition uses a five-level heading system to organize academic papers. Each level has specific formatting requirements, and using them correctly demonstrates that your paper is professionally structured. This guide explains every level of APA headings with exact formatting rules and examples. In short: Level 1 is centered and bold; Level 2 is flush left and bold; Level 3 is flush left, bold, and italic; Level 4 is indented, bold, and ends with a period; Level 5 is indented, bold italic, and ends with a period. All five levels use title case.

APA Headings: All 5 Levels

APA Heading Level 1

Level 1 headings are used for major sections of the paper. They are centered, bold, and in title case (capitalize the first letter of every word of four letters or more, plus the first word and any word after a colon). In a standard APA paper, Level 1 headings include the paper title (see the APA title page) on the first page of the body, Method, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, and References.

Important rule: The introduction does not use the heading «Introduction.» Instead, the paper title, repeated at the top of the first body page, serves as the Level 1 heading for the introduction. This is one of the most commonly confused APA formatting rules.

Example Level 1 heading:
Method

APA Heading Level 2

Level 2 headings are used for subsections within a Level 1 section. They are left-aligned and bold (not italic), in title case. The text begins on the next line as a new paragraph with a standard first-line indent.

In the Method section, Level 2 headings typically include Participants, Materials, Measures, and Procedure. In the Discussion section, Level 2 headings might include Limitations, Implications, and Future Directions.

Example Level 2 heading:
Participants
(text begins here on the next line, indented)

APA Heading Level 3

Level 3 headings are used for subsections within a Level 2 section. They are left-aligned (not indented), bold, and italic, in title case, with no period. The text begins on the next line as a new paragraph with a standard first-line indent.

Example Level 3 heading:
Demographic Characteristics
The sample consisted of 148 full-time employees aged 22–35…

APA Heading Level 4

Level 4 headings are used for subsections within a Level 3 section. They are indented 0.5 inches from the left margin, bold (but not italic), in title case, and end with a period. The paragraph text begins on the same line immediately after the period.

Example Level 4 heading:
    Age and Gender Distribution. Female participants (n = 82) ranged in age from 22 to 35…

APA Heading Level 5

Level 5 headings are used for the most specific subsection level. They are indented 0.5 inches, bold and italic, in title case, and end with a period. The paragraph text begins on the same line immediately after the period. Level 5 headings are rarely needed in student papers; they are more common in dissertation chapters or long empirical reports.

Example Level 5 heading:
    Gender Breakdown by Age Group. Female participants in the 22–25 age cohort…

How Many Heading Levels Does a Student Paper Need?

Most undergraduate papers use only Level 1 headings. Many graduate research papers use Levels 1 and 2. Dissertations and longer empirical reports may use Levels 1, 2, and 3. Levels 4 and 5 are only needed for complex, multi-level structures that are rarely required in coursework.

APA requires that you use headings in order — you cannot skip from Level 1 to Level 3 without using Level 2. However, you can use only Level 1 or only Levels 1 and 2 if your paper’s structure doesn’t require deeper subdivision.

APA Paper Structure: Where Each Level Goes

Here is how a standard APA empirical paper is typically structured using headings:

[Paper Title] — Level 1 (serves as the Introduction heading)

Method — Level 1
Participants — Level 2
Materials — Level 2
Measures — Level 2
Primary Outcome Measure — Level 3 (if the Measures section has subsections)
Procedure — Level 2

Results — Level 1
Descriptive Statistics — Level 2
Hypothesis Testing — Level 2

Discussion — Level 1
Limitations — Level 2
Implications — Level 2
Future Directions — Level 2

Conclusion — Level 1 (if separate from Discussion)

References — Level 1

APA Heading Formatting in Microsoft Word

To format APA headings correctly in Word without manually adjusting each one, use Word’s built-in paragraph styles. However, Word’s default Heading 1, Heading 2, etc. styles don’t match APA formatting — you’ll need to modify them.

Alternatively, the APA Format Template on this site has all five heading levels pre-formatted correctly. You can apply them by selecting text and clicking the appropriate style in Word’s Styles gallery, or simply type your headings using the exact formatting described above.

Common APA Heading Mistakes

• Using «Introduction» as a heading — APA does not use «Introduction» as a heading. The paper title on the first body page serves that function.
• Skipping heading levels — You must use levels in order. You cannot use Level 3 without Level 2.
• Centering Level 2 headings — Level 2 is left-aligned, not centered. Only Level 1 is centered.
• Omitting the period after Levels 4 and 5 — Levels 4 and 5 end with a period, and the paragraph text begins on the same line. Levels 1, 2, and 3 do not end with a period and are followed by text on the next line.
• Not bolding all headings — All five APA heading levels are bold. Levels 3 and 5 are also italic. Levels 1, 2, and 4 are bold but not italic.

APA Headings vs. Headers

Headings label the sections of your text. The page header is the top margin of each page, where the page number appears; professional papers also include a running head there. For the header, see APA page numbers format and APA running head format.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need to use all five APA heading levels?

No. Use only as many heading levels as your paper’s structure requires. Most student papers use one or two levels. Start with Level 1 for major sections. Add Level 2 if major sections have multiple named subsections. Only add Level 3 if those subsections need further subdivision. More levels than the structure requires creates unnecessary complexity.

APA Headings: 6th vs. 7th Edition

APA 7th edition simplified the heading system: Levels 1 and 2 stayed the same, while Levels 3, 4, and 5 changed.

The 7th edition uses title case for all levels and puts Level 3 on its own line, flush left. Its formatting is more consistent: all five levels are bold, Levels 3 and 5 add italic, and Levels 4 and 5 run into the paragraph text.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• APA Title Page: Student and Professional Examples
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• APA vs MLA: Key Differences

An annotated bibliography is more than a list of sources. It is a research tool that shows you—and your professor—that you have read, understood, and critically evaluated the sources you plan to use. This guide shows you exactly how to write an annotated bibliography in APA, MLA, and Chicago format, with complete examples for each.

What Is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a list of sources—books, articles, websites, and other materials—where each entry includes a citation followed by a paragraph (the annotation) that describes and evaluates the source. The annotation tells the reader what the source is about, how reliable or credible it is, and why it is (or is not) useful for your research.

Annotated bibliographies serve two purposes. As a standalone assignment, they demonstrate your ability to find, read, and evaluate sources. As a preparatory step, they are the research foundation for a literature review, research paper, or thesis.

Types of Annotations

• Descriptive (informative)—Summarizes the content of the source without evaluation. Answers: what does this source say? Used when the assignment asks only for summaries.
• Evaluative (critical)—Assesses the quality, reliability, and relevance of the source. Answers: is this source credible and useful for my research? Used when the assignment requires critical analysis.
• Combination—Summarizes and evaluates. This is the most common type requested in academic assignments. Each annotation describes the source and then assesses its value for your specific research question.

How to Write an Annotation: Step-by-Step

Most annotations are 100–200 words and cover four elements:

1. Summary—What is the source’s main argument or purpose? What does it cover? One to three sentences.
2. Authority/Credibility—Who wrote it? What are the author’s credentials? Where was it published? Is it peer-reviewed? One sentence.
3. Evaluation—What are the source’s strengths and limitations? Is the evidence convincing? Are there biases? One to two sentences.
4. Relevance—How does this source contribute to your specific research question or paper? One sentence.

Annotated Bibliography Examples by Citation Style

APA Annotated Bibliography Example

Brown, T., Williams, K., & Patel, S. (2023). Longitudinal effects of cognitive training on academic outcomes in underrepresented students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

This longitudinal study examined the effects of a 12-week cognitive training intervention on GPA and standardized test scores among first-generation college students. Using a randomized controlled design with 240 participants across four universities, the authors found significant improvements in working memory and academic performance in the intervention group compared to controls. The study is published in a peer-reviewed APA journal and the randomized design strengthens causal inference. The primary limitation is the homogeneous sample drawn from a single geographic region, which may limit generalizability. This source directly supports the section on evidence-based interventions for academic performance in first-generation students.

Formatting note: In APA, the annotation is indented 0.5 inches from the left margin (same as a regular paragraph). The citation uses standard APA reference list format. The entire entry is double-spaced.

MLA Annotated Bibliography Example

Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58.

Clarke argues that the proliferation of digital archives has not replaced the need for close reading but instead has shifted the nature of the skill required, from sustained textual analysis toward pattern recognition across large corpora. The author is a professor of English at a research university and the article is published in one of the field’s leading peer-reviewed journals. Clarke’s argument is lucidly structured but relies heavily on a small set of exemplary cases rather than systematic evidence. The article is particularly relevant to the section on methodology, where I argue that digital tools and traditional close reading are complementary rather than competing approaches.

Formatting note: In MLA, the citation uses standard Works Cited format with a hanging indent. The annotation is indented to align with the second line of the citation and written in continuous prose.

Chicago Annotated Bibliography Example

Smith, Jane. Advanced Research Methodology. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Smith provides a comprehensive methodological guide for graduate students conducting qualitative and mixed-methods research in the social sciences and humanities. Chapters four and five, covering thematic analysis and interview design respectively, are most directly relevant to this project. The author holds a distinguished professorship in research methods at a major research university and the book is widely assigned in graduate courses, lending it considerable authority. A potential limitation is that the book’s examples skew toward social science contexts and less frequently address humanistic inquiry. Despite this, the methodological framework Smith proposes adapts readily to humanities research and will inform the analytical approach used in this dissertation.

Annotated Bibliography Format Rules

APA Format

Heading: «Annotated Bibliography» or «Annotated References» — centered, bold. Citations follow APA 7th edition reference list format. Annotations are indented 0.5 inches. Entries are alphabetical by author’s last name. Double-spaced throughout with no extra line between entries.

MLA Format

Heading: «Annotated Works Cited» — centered, not bold. Citations follow MLA 9th edition Works Cited format with hanging indent. Annotations begin on the line immediately below the citation, indented to align with the hanging indent continuation. Entries are alphabetical. Double-spaced throughout.

Chicago Format

Heading: «Annotated Bibliography» — centered. Citations follow Chicago bibliography format (Notes-Bibliography system): hanging indent, periods between elements. Annotations follow immediately below the citation, double-spaced. Entries are alphabetical by author’s last name.

Common Annotated Bibliography Mistakes

• Writing only summaries—A descriptive-only annotation that never evaluates the source is incomplete for most assignments. Always check whether your assignment requires evaluation.
• Being too general—»This source is helpful for my research» is not an evaluation. Be specific: identify what aspect of the source is useful and why.
• Ignoring limitations—A credible annotation acknowledges the source’s weaknesses (limited sample, dated findings, theoretical bias) as well as its strengths.
• Using quotations in the annotation—Annotations should paraphrase and summarize in your own words. Direct quotes are rarely appropriate.
• Not linking to your research question—The annotation should explain specifically how the source contributes to your project, not just what the source is about.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should an annotation be?

Typically 100–200 words per annotation. Some assignments specify a target length; follow those instructions. Annotations should be dense with information — every sentence should either describe, evaluate, or connect the source to your research. Padding and vague praise waste words that should contain substantive analysis.

Is an annotated bibliography the same as a literature review?

No. An annotated bibliography lists sources individually, each with its own annotation. A literature review synthesizes sources thematically, discussing how they relate to each other and to your research question in continuous prose. An annotated bibliography is often a step toward writing the literature review; the two are different assignments with different structures.

Do I have to include every source I read?

Not necessarily. An annotated bibliography typically includes sources that are relevant to your research question. Sources you read and discarded as irrelevant are usually not included unless the assignment specifically asks for a comprehensive search record. Include sources that you are planning to use or that provide important context, even if you ultimately don’t cite them in the final paper.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step Guide
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• How to Cite in MLA: Complete Guide
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

APA and MLA are the two most widely required citation styles in academic writing, and students confuse them constantly. This guide gives you a clear, direct comparison of APA vs MLA — what each style looks like, where they differ, and which one your class most likely requires.

APA vs MLA: Quick Reference

Which Disciplines Use APA?

APA (American Psychological Association) is the standard citation style in psychology, education, social work, nursing, sociology, criminal justice, business, economics, and most other social science disciplines. If your course is in any of these fields, you almost certainly need APA format unless your professor specifies otherwise.

Which Disciplines Use MLA?

MLA (Modern Language Association) is the standard in English literature, literary criticism, comparative literature, language studies, cultural studies, and most other humanities disciplines. If your course is an English, literature, language, film, or art history course, you most likely need MLA unless your professor specifies otherwise.

APA vs MLA: In-Text Citations

This is the most visible difference between the two styles. APA uses author-date format; MLA uses author-page format.

Paraphrase

APA: (Smith, 2024)
MLA: (Smith 45)

Direct Quote

APA: (Smith, 2024, p. 45)
MLA: (Smith 45)

Author Named in Sentence

APA: Smith (2024) found that…
MLA: Smith argues that… (45).

Two Authors

APA: (Smith & Jones, 2024) — always ampersand inside parentheses
MLA: (Smith and Jones 78) — always «and»

Three or More Authors

APA: (Brown et al., 2023) — et al. from the first citation
MLA: (Brown et al. 112) — et al. from the first citation

No Page Number (Website)

APA: (Smith, 2024) — page number not needed for paraphrases
MLA: (Smith) — omit page reference entirely

APA vs MLA: Bibliography / Works Cited

The bibliography section has different names, different author formats, and different punctuation between the two styles.

Journal Article

APA: Brown, T. (2023). Cognitive flexibility and academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

MLA: Brown, Tom. «Cognitive Flexibility and Academic Resilience.» Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 115, no. 4, 2023, pp. 812–829.

Key differences: APA uses initials only (Brown, T.), year immediately after author, sentence case for article title, volume and issue formatted differently. MLA uses full first name, title in quotation marks (title case), year at the end.

Book

APA: Smith, K. (2024). Introduction to research design (3rd ed.). American Psychological Association.

MLA: Smith, Karen. Introduction to Research Design. 3rd ed., American Psychological Association, 2024.

Key differences: APA uses initials, year in parentheses after author, sentence case for book title, no city. MLA uses full first name, title in title case, edition before publisher, year at the end.

Website

APA: Smith, J. (2024, October 15). Understanding cognitive biases. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/example

MLA: Smith, John. «Understanding Cognitive Biases.» Psychology Today, 15 Oct. 2024, www.psychologytoday.com/example.

APA vs MLA: Document Format

Title Page

APA requires a title page with the paper title (bold, centered), your name, institutional affiliation, course name and number, instructor name, and due date. MLA does not use a title page — instead, a four-line header (your name, professor’s name, course, date) appears at the top left of the first page, followed by the centered title.

Abstract

APA papers typically include an abstract (150–250 words, on its own page, with a keywords line). MLA papers do not include abstracts.

Page Header

APA student papers: page number only in top right corner (no running head). MLA: last name and page number in top right corner (Smith 1, Smith 2, etc.).

Headings

APA has a formal five-level heading hierarchy. The introduction is not labeled «Introduction» — the paper title serves as the Level 1 heading. MLA does not require headings, though section headings (bold, flush left) are acceptable in longer papers.

Margins, Font, and Spacing

Both APA and MLA use: 1-inch margins, Times New Roman 12pt (or comparable serif font), and double spacing throughout. The only spacing difference is that APA does not add extra space between paragraphs (already double-spaced), while MLA follows the same rule. Both use a 0.5-inch first-line paragraph indent.

The Biggest APA vs MLA Mistakes

• Putting a comma before the page number in MLA — MLA is (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). Only APA uses a comma, and in APA you’re separating the author from the year, not the author from the page.
• Using the year in MLA citations — MLA in-text citations use the page number, not the year. The year appears only in the Works Cited entry.
• Omitting the year from APA in-text citations — APA requires the year every time: (Smith, 2024). Omitting it is one of the most common APA errors.
• Creating a title page for an MLA paper — MLA uses a header, not a title page.
• Calling the bibliography «Works Cited» in an APA paper — APA calls it «References.» MLA calls it «Works Cited.»
• Using «&» in the narrative text for APA — In APA, use «and» in sentences but «&» inside parentheses. In MLA, always use «and.»

When Would You Use Both?

Interdisciplinary courses sometimes require one style for citing social science sources and another for humanities sources — but this is rare, and your professor would specify it clearly. In practice, you will use one style per paper. When your paper draws on sources from multiple disciplines (common in interdisciplinary studies, cultural studies, or communication), use the style your department or your professor specifies, not the style of the source you’re citing.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is APA or MLA easier?

Most students find MLA slightly easier to learn because the in-text citation format is simpler — just author and page number, no year, no comma. APA has more components to remember (year in every in-text citation, different title formatting, title page, abstract) but is still straightforward once learned. The templates on this site give you a pre-formatted starting point for both.

Does APA or MLA use footnotes?

Neither APA nor MLA uses footnotes for citations — that is Chicago style. APA and MLA both use in-text parenthetical citations. APA and MLA may use footnotes (or endnotes) for supplementary commentary — additional information that would interrupt the flow of the text but is still worth including. These are not citation footnotes; they are content notes.

Can I switch between APA and MLA in the same paper?

No. Use one citation style consistently throughout the entire paper, including all in-text citations and the bibliography. Mixing styles within a single paper is a formatting error.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide with Examples
• How to Cite in MLA: Complete Guide with Examples

A literature review is not a summary of everything you read. It is an organized, analytical synthesis of the existing scholarship on your topic — one that identifies patterns, debates, gaps, and trajectories in the research and positions your own work within that conversation. If your literature review reads like a series of disconnected summaries, it is not doing its job. This guide shows you exactly how to write a literature review that functions as real scholarship.

What Is a Literature Review?

A literature review is a critical survey of the published research on a specific topic. It appears in three contexts: as a standalone assignment (a review article or seminar paper), as part of a research paper’s introduction, or as a full chapter in a thesis or dissertation. In all three contexts, the purpose is the same: to show that you understand the existing scholarship, to identify what is known and what remains unresolved, and to situate your research within that landscape.

The literature review answers the question: What do we already know about this topic, and why does your study need to exist? A good literature review makes the case that there is a genuine gap, debate, or unanswered question that your research addresses.

Types of Literature Reviews

Before you start, identify which type of literature review your assignment requires:

• Narrative review — The most common type in humanities and social sciences. You select and synthesize relevant sources thematically, without a systematic, reproducible search process.
• Systematic review — Used in medicine, public health, and evidence-based disciplines. Follows a strict, reproducible search protocol with explicit inclusion/exclusion criteria and a PRISMA flow diagram.
• Scoping review — Maps the breadth of a topic rather than assessing quality. Used when the field is new or poorly defined.
• Integrative review — Combines quantitative and qualitative studies to develop new conceptual frameworks.
• Theoretical review — Surveys the theoretical frameworks that have been applied to a problem, rather than empirical findings.

Most undergraduate and graduate course assignments require a narrative review. Dissertations in health, medicine, and policy fields often require systematic or scoping reviews. If your assignment doesn’t specify, confirm with your supervisor.

How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step

Step 1: Define your scope

Before searching for sources, define the boundaries of your review. What time period will you cover? Which disciplines? Which geographic contexts? Which types of studies (experimental, qualitative, theoretical)? A clear scope prevents you from drowning in tangentially related literature and keeps the review focused on what’s genuinely relevant to your research question.

Step 2: Search systematically

Use academic databases appropriate to your field: Google Scholar for broad coverage, PsycINFO for psychology, PubMed for medicine, JSTOR for humanities, Web of Science for STEM. Use Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) to refine your search. Keep a record of your search strings, databases, and dates — you may need to report this in a systematic review, and it helps you replicate the search if needed.

Prioritize peer-reviewed journal articles and books from academic publishers. Check the reference lists of key papers to find sources you may have missed («forward and backward citation chaining»). Aim to use sources published within the last 10 years unless a foundational earlier work is essential to your argument.

Step 3: Read critically, not passively

Reading for a literature review is different from reading to understand a topic. You are reading to evaluate: What claim is this source making? What evidence supports it? What are the limitations? How does it relate to the other sources you’ve read? Does it agree or disagree, extend or contradict, refine or challenge earlier work?

Take notes with a consistent structure: source, main argument, methods (if applicable), key findings, limitations, and how it connects to your research question. A synthesis matrix — a table with sources as rows and themes as columns — is an effective tool for spotting patterns across sources.

Step 4: Identify themes, patterns, and gaps

This is the step that transforms a summary into a literature review. Look across your sources for: themes that appear repeatedly, debates where scholars disagree, methodological trends or limitations across the field, contradictions in the evidence, and gaps — questions no one has answered, populations no one has studied, or methods no one has applied.

These themes and gaps become the sections of your literature review. You are not organizing by source («Smith argues X, Jones argues Y, Brown argues Z»). You are organizing by idea («Research on X consistently finds that…, however, studies disagree about…»).

Step 5: Choose an organizational structure

There are three main ways to organize a literature review:

• Thematic — Group sources by the themes, concepts, or issues they address. This is the most common structure for narrative reviews and the most effective for demonstrating synthesis. Each section covers a theme across multiple sources, rather than covering one source at a time.
• Chronological — Trace how thinking on the topic has evolved over time. Useful when the historical development of a debate or theory is itself significant to your argument.
• Methodological — Group sources by their research methods (quantitative vs. qualitative, experimental vs. observational). Useful in fields where methodological debates are central, or in the methods section of a dissertation literature review.

Most literature reviews combine approaches: a broadly thematic structure with chronological ordering within each theme, or methodological grouping within a thematic framework.

Step 6: Write the literature review

A literature review has three parts: an introduction, a body organized by your chosen structure, and a conclusion.

Introduction: State the topic and scope of the review. Explain the organizational approach and why you chose it. Preview the main themes or trajectory you will trace.

Body: Each section covers one theme or aspect of the literature. Begin each section with a topic sentence that states the theme. Then synthesize multiple sources around that theme, showing how they relate to each other — who agrees, who disagrees, who built on whom. Do not summarize sources one by one. Compare, contrast, and connect them.

Conclusion: Summarize the state of the field. Identify the key gap, debate, or limitation that your research addresses. This is where the literature review transitions to your research question or hypothesis: «Given these gaps in the existing research, the present study aims to…»

Literature Review Example Paragraph

Here is an example of a synthesized literature review paragraph (social sciences topic):

Weak version (summary, not synthesis):
Smith (2022) studied the relationship between social media use and self-esteem in adolescents. She found that heavy social media use was associated with lower self-esteem. Jones and Brown (2023) also studied this topic and found similar results. Davis (2024) conducted a longitudinal study and found that the effect was stronger among girls.

Strong version (synthesis):
Cross-sectional research consistently demonstrates a negative association between heavy social media use and self-esteem in adolescents (Smith, 2022; Jones & Brown, 2023), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate (r = −0.18 to −0.34). Davis’s (2024) longitudinal work extends these findings by showing that the relationship is stronger and more durable among girls than boys, suggesting that platform-specific social comparison dynamics — particularly image-focused content — may drive the effect. However, the mechanisms underlying the gender difference remain poorly understood, as the existing studies did not measure specific platform usage or the nature of social comparison activity.

The strong version synthesizes three sources into a single argument, quantifies the effect, identifies an emerging finding (gender difference), and ends by pointing toward a gap in the evidence. That gap motivates the next section or the research question.

Common Literature Review Mistakes

• Summarizing instead of synthesizing — A list of summaries is not a literature review. Synthesis means identifying how sources relate to each other, not just what each one says.
• Organizing by source — Avoid the «Smith says X, Jones says Y, Brown says Z» structure. Organize by theme, not by author.
• Including sources that aren’t relevant — Every source in the literature review should directly connect to your research question. Tangentially related sources inflate word count without strengthening the review.
• Only including sources that agree with your position — A literature review must engage with contradictory evidence and dissenting views. Ignoring them weakens your credibility.
• Failing to identify the gap — The literature review must show why your research is necessary. If you don’t identify a gap, your research has no justification.
• Using too many direct quotes — Literature reviews should be primarily paraphrase and synthesis. Reserve direct quotes for particularly significant formulations that cannot be paraphrased without loss of meaning.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many sources should a literature review include?

There is no universal minimum or maximum. A short (2,000-word) literature review section in a research paper might cite 15–25 sources. A dissertation literature review chapter might cite 50–150 sources depending on the field and scope. What matters is comprehensiveness within your defined scope — you should be able to demonstrate that you have surveyed the relevant scholarship, not that you have hit a number.

How is a literature review different from an annotated bibliography?

An annotated bibliography lists sources with a brief summary and evaluation of each one — it is organized by source. A literature review is written as continuous prose organized by themes, synthesizing sources into a coherent argument about the state of the field. An annotated bibliography is often a preparatory step toward writing the literature review.

How recent do my sources need to be?

As a general rule, prioritize sources published within the last 10 years for empirical claims, and within the last 5 years for rapidly evolving fields (technology, medicine, public health). Seminal or foundational works can be older if they are genuinely foundational to the field — citing a 1979 theory that is still the dominant framework is appropriate; citing a 1979 empirical study as if its findings are current is not.

Can I use the same sources in my literature review and my reference list?

Yes — every source cited in the literature review must appear in your reference list, and conversely, every source in your reference list should be cited somewhere in the paper. The literature review draws on the same pool of sources as the rest of the paper; it doesn’t have its own separate reference list.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper: Complete Guide
• How to Write an Abstract: Examples for Every Paper Type
• How to Write a Thesis Statement
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

The abstract is the most-read part of any academic paper — and often the most poorly written. Readers use the abstract to decide whether the full paper is worth their time. If your abstract is vague, disorganized, or simply a copy of your introduction, it fails at its only job. This guide shows you exactly how to write an abstract for any type of academic paper, with examples you can model directly.

What Is an Abstract?

An abstract is a concise, standalone summary of a research paper, thesis, dissertation, or article. It appears at the beginning of the paper — after the title page and before the introduction — and gives readers enough information to understand what the paper is about, why it matters, what was done, what was found, and what it means. In most academic formats (APA, Chicago, many journals), the abstract is a single paragraph of 150–250 words.

The abstract is not an introduction. The introduction is the first section of your paper and leads the reader into your argument. The abstract is a separate, complete summary that stands alone — a reader should be able to understand the paper’s purpose and findings without reading anything else.

What to Include in an Abstract

Despite differences in length and format across disciplines, most academic abstracts answer five questions in order:

1. Problem / background — What issue or gap does this paper address? One or two sentences of context.
2. Purpose / objective — What is this paper trying to do? State your research question, aim, or hypothesis.
3. Methods — How did you do it? Briefly describe your approach, data sources, or methodology.
4. Results / findings — What did you find? This is the most important part — state your actual results, not just that you found them.
5. Conclusion / implications — What does it mean? One sentence on the significance, implications, or applications of the findings.

Not every abstract covers all five elements equally. Empirical research papers (psychology, biology, medicine) emphasize methods and results. Theoretical and humanities papers may spend more space on the argument and less on methods. Literature reviews emphasize scope and conclusions. Know which type of paper you’re writing and adjust accordingly.

How to Write an Abstract: Step-by-Step

Step 1: Write the abstract last

You cannot write a good abstract before you have finished the paper. The abstract summarizes work that is complete. If you write it first, you will either be vague or you will write a plan rather than a summary. Wait until the paper is drafted, then write the abstract in a single session using the finished paper as your source.

Step 2: Identify the one sentence for each element

Go through your finished paper and write one sentence that answers each of the five questions: What problem? What purpose? What method? What result? What conclusion? These five sentences are your abstract’s skeleton. You now have something to edit rather than a blank page.

Step 3: Expand to the required word count

APA 7th edition recommends 150–250 words. Journals typically specify 150–300 words. Dissertations sometimes allow up to 350. Use additional sentences to add necessary detail to the elements that matter most for your paper type. Empirical papers need specific results («The intervention reduced anxiety scores by 23%, p = .002»). Theoretical papers need the main claim. Do not pad with background or context that is not essential.

Step 4: Write in past tense for completed work

The methods and results sections of an abstract are written in the past tense because the research is complete: «We collected data from 120 participants» and «The analysis revealed…» The introduction sentence (context) and conclusion (implications) may use the present tense: «This study addresses…» and «These findings suggest…»

Step 5: Cut ruthlessly

Every sentence in the abstract must earn its place. Remove background that the reader doesn’t need to understand the purpose. Remove methodological detail that doesn’t affect the interpretation of the results. Remove hedges and filler phrases («This paper attempts to…», «It is hoped that…»). What remains should be dense with information — every sentence should advance the reader’s understanding of the paper.

Step 6: Check for common abstract errors

Before finalizing, verify: no citations (abstracts do not cite sources), no abbreviations undefined in the abstract itself, no information not present in the paper, accurate reflection of what the paper actually concludes, and compliance with your journal’s or institution’s word limit.

Abstract Examples by Paper Type

Empirical Research Paper (Psychology / Social Science)

Chronic stress is a known risk factor for cognitive decline, but the mechanisms through which occupational stress affects working memory in young adults remain poorly understood. This study investigated the relationship between self-reported occupational stress and working memory performance in full-time employees aged 22–35. Participants (N = 148) completed the Perceived Stress Scale and two validated working memory tasks (n-back and digit span). Results indicated a significant negative correlation between stress scores and both n-back accuracy (r = −0.43, p < .001) and digit span performance (r = −0.37, p = .002). The relationship remained significant after controlling for sleep quality and physical activity. These findings suggest that occupational stress impairs working memory performance in young adults independently of lifestyle factors, with implications for workplace wellness interventions targeting cognitive health.

Word count: 148. Notice: Each of the five elements is present. The results section states specific numbers, not just «results were significant.» The conclusion identifies an implication, not just a plan for future research.

Literature Review

The relationship between sleep deprivation and academic performance in university students has received substantial research attention since 2010, yet the literature remains fragmented across disciplines and inconsistent in its findings regarding threshold effects. This review synthesizes 47 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025, examining the effects of sleep duration and quality on GPA, exam performance, and cognitive test scores. The review identifies three consistent findings across the literature: sleep durations below 6 hours are associated with measurable academic performance decrements; the effect is stronger for objective cognitive measures than for self-reported GPA; and first-year students show greater vulnerability than upper-year students. However, significant heterogeneity in measurement instruments and population characteristics limits generalization. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs with standardized sleep measurement to establish causal evidence for the relationship.

Humanities / Argumentative Paper

Scholarship on Toni Morrison’s Beloved has consistently interpreted the novel’s ghost as a figure of historical trauma and collective memory. This paper argues that this reading, while generative, has obscured an equally important dimension of the text: Morrison’s ghost functions not only as a memorial but as a critique of the limits of narrative itself as a vehicle for traumatic experience. Through close analysis of three narrative disruptions in the novel — the fragmented chronology, the shift to second-person address in Beloved’s monologue, and the deliberate gap in the Middle Passage passage — this paper demonstrates that Morrison uses these formal strategies to stage the failure of conventional storytelling to contain or transmit the experience of slavery. The argument challenges dominant trauma theory frameworks that position narrative as the primary means of healing and recovery.

Scientific / Lab Report

Antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli represents a growing public health concern, with resistance rates to first-line antibiotics increasing annually in clinical settings. This study examined the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of three common antibiotics (ampicillin, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin) against 24 E. coli isolates from local wastewater samples. Standard broth microdilution assays were performed in triplicate following CLSI guidelines. Results showed that 71% of isolates demonstrated resistance to ampicillin (MIC ≥ 32 μg/mL), 46% to tetracycline, and 17% to ciprofloxacin. Multi-drug resistance (resistance to two or more antibiotics) was observed in 42% of isolates. These findings indicate a high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in wastewater, with implications for downstream contamination of water supplies and the need for enhanced monitoring protocols.

Abstract Format Rules by Citation Style

APA 7th Edition Abstract Format

The abstract appears on page 2, after the title page. The heading «Abstract» is centered and bold. The text is a single paragraph, not indented. Word limit: 150–250 words. Below the abstract, add a keywords line: the word Keywords in italics, followed by a colon, then 3–5 lowercase keywords separated by commas. No citations in the abstract. No abbreviations unless defined within the abstract.

Structured Abstracts (Medical / Clinical Research)

Many medical journals and some social science journals require a structured abstract — one with explicit labeled sections rather than a single paragraph. Common section labels are: Objective, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Some journals use: Background, Aims, Methods, Results, Discussion. Always follow the specific journal’s author guidelines for structured abstract format. The content in each section is the same as described above; only the presentation changes.

Dissertation Abstract

Dissertation abstracts are longer than paper abstracts — typically 300–350 words, with some institutions allowing up to 500. The dissertation abstract must cover all five elements but in more detail, and often includes a brief statement of the dissertation’s contribution to the field. ProQuest (which archives most North American dissertations) limits the abstract to 350 words for the database entry.

Common Abstract Mistakes

• Announcing instead of summarizing — «This paper will examine…» is an announcement. «This study found…» is a summary. Write the abstract in the past tense, reporting what was done and found.
• Omitting the results — The most common and damaging mistake. «The results supported the hypothesis» tells the reader nothing. State the actual finding: «Participants in the intervention group showed a 34% reduction in reported symptoms.»
• Repeating the introduction — The abstract is not a longer version of your first paragraph. It covers the entire paper — including methods, results, and conclusions — in miniature.
• Including citations — Abstracts do not cite sources. If you need to reference another study, paraphrase without attribution.
• Exceeding the word limit — Word limits are strict. If your abstract is 280 words and the limit is 250, you must cut 30 words, not ask for an exception.
• Writing it first — You cannot accurately summarize a paper you haven’t finished. Write the abstract last.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should an abstract be?

For most academic papers: 150–250 words in APA format. Journal articles vary — most are 150–300 words; always check the specific journal’s guidelines. Dissertations: 300–350 words typically, up to 500 for some institutions. Conference abstracts can be as short as 100–150 words. Structured abstracts in medical journals average 250–300 words across their labeled sections.

Should an abstract be in first person or third person?

This depends on the discipline. Social sciences and STEM fields following APA style now accept first person: «We recruited 120 participants» and «We found that…» Humanities papers often use third person or passive voice. When writing for a specific journal, follow its style guide. When writing for a course, follow your professor’s instructions or the citation style being used.

Do all papers need an abstract?

Not always. Short undergraduate essays typically don’t require abstracts. APA 7th edition student paper guidelines make abstracts optional unless specifically required by the instructor. Journal articles, theses, dissertations, and longer research papers almost always require one. Check your assignment instructions or the submission guidelines for your target journal.

Can I use the same text in my abstract and my introduction?

No. The abstract and introduction serve different functions and should not share text. The introduction is a full section that contextualizes the paper and leads into the argument. The abstract is a standalone summary of the entire paper. Some overlap in the problem statement sentence is acceptable, but copy-pasting is not. Many plagiarism detection tools also flag self-plagiarism within the same document if the same passage appears verbatim in two places.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper: Complete Guide
• How to Write a Thesis Statement: Examples for Every Essay Type
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide

Turabian style is the student-focused adaptation of Chicago style. If your professor requires Turabian format, this page gives you a ready-to-use Turabian format template for Word — download it, replace the placeholder content, and submit. Because Turabian and Chicago use identical citation formats, this template works for both.

Download Turabian Format Template for Word

The template uses the Notes-Bibliography (NB) system — the version required in most humanities courses. It includes a title page, double-spaced body with five working footnotes, a sample data table, and a bibliography with nine formatted entries.

Free download · Turabian 9th edition · Microsoft Word compatible · No registration needed

Turabian vs. Chicago: What Is the Difference?

Turabian style is based directly on The Chicago Manual of Style. The citation formats are identical — Notes-Bibliography footnotes and bibliography entries in Turabian follow exactly the same rules as Chicago. When your professor says «Chicago/Turabian» or simply «Turabian,» they mean the same citation system.

The only practical differences are in document formatting for student papers: Turabian’s title page places the paper title roughly one-third down the page and groups the student’s name, course, instructor, institution, and date in the lower third. Turabian also includes specific guidance for theses and dissertations that Chicago’s professional-focused manual does not address in as much detail.

Turabian Format Requirements

Page Setup and Typography

Turabian papers use US Letter paper (8.5 × 11 inches) with 1-inch margins on all sides. Some institutions require a left margin of 1.25 to 1.5 inches for bound theses — check your institution’s submission guidelines. Font is Times New Roman 12pt throughout. All text is double-spaced. The first line of each paragraph is indented 0.5 inches. Do not add extra spacing between paragraphs.

Title Page

The Turabian title page is not numbered. The paper title appears centered, roughly one-third of the way down the page. In the lower third, centered, include your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, your institution, and the date. The title page does not carry a page number. Body text begins on page 1.

Page Numbers

Page numbers appear in the top right corner of every page except the title page. In Word, set this as a right-aligned header with an automatic page number field. If your paper has a table of contents or other front matter, those pages typically use Roman numerals (i, ii, iii); Arabic numerals begin with the first page of text.

Footnotes in Turabian

Turabian NB system citations appear as numbered footnotes at the bottom of the page where the citation occurs. The first citation of each source gives the full details. All subsequent citations of the same source use the shortened form: Last Name, Shortened Title, page. Footnote text is single-spaced at 10pt, with a separator line above the footnote area.

Bibliography

The bibliography appears on a new page with the centered heading «Bibliography.» Entries are double-spaced, listed alphabetically by first author’s last name, with a hanging indent. Note that bibliography entries look different from footnote entries: the first author’s name is inverted (Last, First), and the punctuation between elements uses periods rather than commas.

Turabian Citation Formats with Examples

Book — First Footnote

1. Jane Smith, Advanced Research Methodology (New York: Routledge, 2023), 45.

Book — Subsequent Footnote (Short Form)

3. Smith, Advanced Research, 78.

Book — Bibliography Entry

Smith, Jane. Advanced Research Methodology. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Journal Article — First Footnote

2. John Brown and Mary Davis, «Digital Scholarship in the Humanities,» Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 3 (2024): 112.

Journal Article — Bibliography Entry

Brown, John, and Mary Davis. «Digital Scholarship in the Humanities.» Journal of Digital Humanities 12, no. 3 (2024): 108–125.

Chapter in Edited Volume — First Footnote

4. Emily Clarke, «Methodology in Practice,» in Handbook of Academic Writing, ed. Robert Hall (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022), 203.

Website — First Footnote

5. Susan Lee, «Primary Sources Online,» Humanities Digital Archive, January 15, 2026, https://www.example.edu/primary-sources.

How to Use the Turabian Template: Step-by-Step

1. Fill in the title page — Replace the paper title, your name, course, instructor, institution, and date.
2. Write your text — Where you need a citation, place your cursor just before the period at the end of the sentence, then go to References → Insert Footnote in Word. A superscript number appears in the text and a matching footnote area opens at the bottom of the page.
3. Type the full footnote — For the first citation of each source, use the full format shown above. For any subsequent citation of the same source, use the shortened form: Last Name, Short Title, page.
4. Replace the sample table — In Turabian, tables have their number and title above the table (Table 1. Title) and source notes below.
5. Build your bibliography — On the final page, list all cited sources alphabetically. Remember the formatting differences from footnotes: inverted first-author name, periods between elements instead of commas, no page number at the end of book entries.

Common Turabian Format Mistakes

• Confusing footnote and bibliography punctuation — Footnotes use commas between elements: Author, Title (Place: Publisher, Year), page. Bibliography entries use periods: Author. Title. Place: Publisher, Year.
• Repeating the full footnote — After the first full citation, always use the short form for subsequent references to the same source.
• Misusing ibid. — Ibid. is only correct when the immediately preceding footnote cites the exact same source and page. Many instructors now prefer the short form throughout — check your course guidelines.
• Paginating the title page — The title page does not carry a page number.
• Single-spacing the bibliography — The bibliography is double-spaced, same as the body text.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is Turabian the same as Chicago style?

The citation formats are identical. Turabian is a student-focused adaptation of The Chicago Manual of Style, so footnote and bibliography entries follow exactly the same rules. If your professor says «Chicago/Turabian» or just «Turabian,» this template is appropriate.

Which edition of Turabian should I use?

The current edition is the 9th (2018), titled A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Most universities accept either the 8th or 9th edition — citation formats changed minimally between them. If your institution specifies an edition, follow that one.

Does Turabian have an Author-Date system?

Yes. Like Chicago, Turabian has both a Notes-Bibliography system (used in history, literature, and the arts) and an Author-Date system (used in some social sciences). The template uses Notes-Bibliography. If your course requires Author-Date, the parenthetical format is (Smith 2024, 45), and sources go in a reference list rather than a bibliography.

Can I use this template for a thesis or dissertation?

The template covers the core formatting requirements that apply to seminar papers and shorter theses. For a full dissertation, your institution will likely have additional formatting requirements — specific margin widths for binding, abstract pages, table of contents formatting, and more. Use this template as a starting point and supplement it with your institution’s specific dissertation guidelines.

Related Resources

• Chicago Style Template Word — Free Download
• APA Format Template Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA — Complete Guide

MLA format is the standard citation style for English literature, languages, film, and most humanities disciplines. If your professor requires MLA and you need to know exactly how to cite every type of source you might use, this guide gives you copy-ready examples for every format — from journal articles and books to websites, videos, and social media posts.

All examples follow MLA 9th edition (2021), the current standard. Key differences from the 8th edition are noted where relevant.

MLA Citation: Two Parts That Must Always Match

Like all academic citation systems, MLA has two linked components:

• In-text citation — a brief parenthetical reference in the body of your paper
• Works Cited entry — a full citation on the Works Cited page at the end

Every source cited in the text must appear in Works Cited. Every entry in Works Cited must be cited at least once in the text. Works Cited is not a bibliography of everything you read — only sources you actually used.

MLA In-Text Citations: The Author-Page Format

MLA uses the author-page format. The author’s last name and the page number appear in parentheses, with no comma between them. The citation goes before the closing punctuation of the sentence.

One Author

Parenthetical: (Smith 45)
Author named in sentence: Smith argues that… (45).
Direct quote: Smith argues that «the tension is unresolvable» (45).

Two Authors

(Smith and Jones 78)
Smith and Jones argue that… (78).

Three or More Authors

Use the first author’s name followed by «et al.»:
(Brown et al. 112)

No Page Number (Websites, Some E-books)

Omit the page reference entirely — use only the author name:
(Johnson)
If the source has numbered paragraphs, use «par.»: (Johnson, par. 4)
If it has sections, use the section name: (Johnson, «Introduction»)

No Author

Use a shortened version of the title. Italicise book and website titles; put article titles in quotation marks:
Book or website: (Merriam-Webster’s 45)
Article: («MLA Format Guide» 3)

Two Works by the Same Author

Add a shortened title to distinguish them:
(Smith, «Article Title» 45)
(Smith, Book Title 112)

Two Authors with the Same Last Name

Add a first initial:
(J. Smith 45) and (M. Smith 23)

Entire Work (No Specific Page)

Just the author name in parentheses, or name them in the sentence with no parenthetical:
(Morrison)
As Morrison demonstrates throughout Beloved…

Indirect Source (Quoting a Quote)

If Smith quotes Jones and you want to use Jones’s words from Smith’s text:
(qtd. in Smith 45)
«Qtd. in» stands for «quoted in.» In Works Cited, include only Smith — the source you actually read.

Direct Quotes in MLA

Short quote (four lines or fewer): Enclose in quotation marks within the text. Citation goes before the closing punctuation.
Clarke argues that «close reading remains the essential skill» (52).

Long quote (more than four lines of prose, more than three lines of poetry): Use a block quotation. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin. Do not use quotation marks. Place the citation after the final punctuation — the opposite of short quotes. Introduce with a complete sentence ending in a colon:

Clarke summarises the problem as follows:

The difficulty with digital archives is not access but interpretation. Scholars can now retrieve texts that were previously inaccessible, but the critical frameworks for reading those texts have not kept pace with the volume of newly available material. (Clarke 89)

Poetry: Reproduce line breaks with a forward slash (/) for short quotes: «I heard a Fly buzz / when I died» (Dickinson 3-4). For longer poetry quotes, use a block quotation as above.

MLA Works Cited: The Container System

MLA 9th edition uses a flexible «container» system. Every source lives inside a container — a journal is the container for an article; a website is the container for a web page; an anthology is the container for a poem. Some sources have two containers (e.g., an article in a journal accessed through a database).

The nine core elements, in order, are: Author. Title of Source. Title of Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication Date, Location.

Not every element applies to every source — omit elements that don’t exist for your source. Each element is followed by a comma except the last, which ends with a period.

How to Cite a Journal Article in MLA

Format: Last, First. «Title of Article.» Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Year, pp. ##–##.

One author:
Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58.

Two authors:
Smith, Karen, and Robert Park. «Rhetoric and Academic Prose.» College English, vol. 85, no. 3, 2023, pp. 201–218.

Three or more authors:
Brown, Tom, et al. «Contextual Factors in Academic Writing.» Journal of Writing Research, vol. 15, no. 2, 2024, pp. 89–115.

Article accessed through a database (two containers):
Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/example.

Article with DOI:
Thompson, Rachel. «Citation Practices in Undergraduate Writing.» Pedagogy, vol. 23, no. 1, 2023, pp. 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1215/000000000.

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Format: Last, First. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.

Single author:
Johnson, Michael. The Art of Literary Analysis. Oxford UP, 2022.

Two authors:
Smith, Karen, and Michael Johnson. Writing in the Disciplines. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2023.

Three or more authors:
Brown, Tom, et al. The Handbook of Academic Writing. Routledge, 2022.

Edited book:
Hall, Robert, editor. New Approaches to Literary Theory. Cambridge UP, 2023.

Chapter in an edited book:
Clarke, Emily. «Digital Editions and Close Reading.» New Approaches to Literary Theory, edited by Robert Hall, Cambridge UP, 2023, pp. 45–67.

Book with edition:
Modern Language Association. MLA Handbook. 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

Translation:
Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Translated by Susan Bernofsky, W. W. Norton, 2014.

Publisher abbreviations in MLA 9th edition: Abbreviate common publishers: «Oxford UP» not «Oxford University Press»; «U of Chicago P» not «University of Chicago Press.»

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Format: Last, First. «Title of Page.» Name of Site, Publisher or Sponsor, Day Month Year, URL.

With author and date:
Smith, Jane. «Understanding Unreliable Narrators.» Literary Hub, 15 Jan. 2024, lithub.com/example.

Organisation as author:
Modern Language Association. «MLA Style Introduction.» MLA Style Center, style.mla.org/example.

No author:
«Guide to Literary Analysis.» Purdue OWL, Purdue University, 10 Feb. 2024, owl.purdue.edu/example.

No date:
Smith, Jane. «Title of Page.» Site Name, url.com/example. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Note on access dates: Include an access date only when the source has no publication date or when the content may change over time. Format: Accessed Day Month Year.

How to Cite a YouTube Video or Online Video in MLA

Format: Last, First, or «Channel Name.» «Title of Video.» YouTube, Day Month Year, URL.

Known creator:
Smith, John. «How to Write a Literary Analysis.» YouTube, 20 Feb. 2024, youtube.com/watch?v=example.

Channel name only:
Literature Explained. «Shakespeare’s Tragedies: An Overview.» YouTube, 12 June 2024, youtube.com/watch?v=example.

TED Talk (from TED website):
Brown, Brené. «The Power of Vulnerability.» TED, June 2010, ted.com/talks/example.

Film or documentary on streaming:
The Social Dilemma. Directed by Jeff Orlowski, Exposure Labs, 2020. Netflix, netflix.com/title/81254224.

How to Cite a Podcast in MLA

Podcast episode:
Host Name. «Episode Title.» Podcast Name, episode #, Production Company, Day Month Year, URL.

Example:
Raz, Guy. «The Science of Habit Formation.» How I Built This, episode 412, NPR, 15 Sept. 2023, npr.org/podcasts/example.

How to Cite Social Media in MLA

Tweet / X post:
Last, First [@username]. «Full text of tweet if under 280 characters.» X, Day Month Year, URL.

Smith, John [@johnsmith]. «New study confirms link between sleep quality and academic performance.» X, 5 Mar. 2024, x.com/johnsmith/status/example.

Instagram post:
American Psychological Association [@APAstyle]. «New citation guidelines now available on our website.» Instagram, 20 Jan. 2024, instagram.com/p/example.

How to Cite a Film in MLA

Feature film (cinema release):
Inception. Directed by Christopher Nolan, Warner Bros. Pictures, 2010.

Film — focusing on a specific person’s contribution:
Nolan, Christopher, director. Inception. Warner Bros. Pictures, 2010.

Film on streaming:
Roma. Directed by Alfonso Cuarón, Participant Media, 2018. Netflix, netflix.com/title/80240715.

How to Cite a TV Show in MLA

Whole series:
Breaking Bad. Created by Vince Gilligan, AMC, 2008–2013.

Single episode:
«Ozymandias.» Breaking Bad, directed by Rian Johnson, season 5, episode 14, AMC, 15 Sept. 2013.

How to Cite a Poem in MLA

Poem from an anthology:
Dickinson, Emily. «Because I could not stop for Death.» The Norton Anthology of American Literature, edited by Robert S. Levine, 9th ed., Norton, 2017, pp. 1187–1188.

Poem from a single-author collection:
Hughes, Langston. «Harlem.» The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, edited by Arnold Rampersad, Knopf, 1994, p. 426.

In-text citation for poems: Use line numbers instead of page numbers, introduced by «line» or «lines» the first time:
(Dickinson, lines 1–2)
(Dickinson 5–6) — subsequent citations

How to Cite a Newspaper Article in MLA

Online newspaper:
Brown, Tom. «Study Finds Exercise Improves Classroom Performance.» The New York Times, 10 Dec. 2024, nytimes.com/example.

Print newspaper:
Brown, Tom. «Study Finds Exercise Improves Classroom Performance.» The New York Times, 10 Dec. 2024, p. B4.

How to Cite a Government Document or Report in MLA

United States, Department of Education. The Condition of Education 2024. National Center for Education Statistics, 2024, nces.ed.gov/example.

World Health Organization. Global Health Report 2024. WHO Press, 2024, who.int/example.

How to Cite an Interview in MLA

Published interview:
Morrison, Toni. «The Art of Fiction No. 134.» Interview by Elissa Schappell. The Paris Review, no. 128, Fall 1993, pp. 83–125.

Interview you conducted yourself:
Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 10 Mar. 2026.

MLA Works Cited: Formatting Rules

• Starts on a new page with centered heading «Works Cited» (not bold, not underlined)
• All entries double-spaced — no extra line between entries
• Hanging indent: first line flush left, all subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches
• Alphabetical by first element (usually author’s last name, or title if no author)
• First author inverted (Last, First); all additional authors in normal order (First Last)
• Two authors joined by «and»; three or more use the first author «et al.»
• Titles: italicise containers (books, journals, websites, films); put source titles in quotation marks (articles, chapters, episodes)
• Abbreviate months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.
• Abbreviate publishers when standard (Oxford UP, MIT P, U of Chicago P)

Common MLA Citation Mistakes

• Adding a comma between author and page number — MLA uses (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). No comma.
• Adding «p.» before the page number in in-text citations — Write (Smith 45), not (Smith p. 45). The «pp.» abbreviation is used only in Works Cited for page ranges.
• Bolding or underlining the paper title — The title on the first page of an MLA paper is in plain title case — no formatting.
• Using a title page — MLA does not use a separate title page. The four-line header appears at the top left of page 1.
• Not inverting only the first author’s name — In Works Cited, only the first author is inverted (Last, First). Additional authors are normal order: Brown, Tom, and Jane Smith.
• Forgetting the hanging indent in Works Cited — Every Works Cited entry must have a hanging indent.
• Including sources not cited in the paper — Works Cited contains only sources you actually used. Everything else belongs in a separate «Works Consulted» list if needed.
• Using «ibid.» — MLA does not use ibid. Repeat the author and page number every time.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need a page number in every MLA in-text citation?

No — only when the source has page numbers. For websites, social media, and most online sources that don’t have stable page numbers, omit the page reference and use only the author name: (Smith). If the source has numbered paragraphs or sections, you can use «par. 4» or the section heading instead.

How do I cite a website in MLA when there’s no author?

Start the Works Cited entry with the title of the page in quotation marks. In the in-text citation, use a shortened version of the title: («MLA Format Guide») if no page number, or («MLA Format Guide» 3) if there is one. Never use the URL as the citation.

What’s the difference between a Works Cited and a Works Consulted page in MLA?

Works Cited lists only sources you cited in the paper. Works Consulted includes sources you read but didn’t cite. Most MLA papers require only a Works Cited. Check your assignment instructions — if in doubt, use Works Cited and include only sources that appear as in-text citations.

How do I format a block quote in MLA?

For quotations longer than four lines of prose or three lines of poetry: start on a new line, indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, do not use quotation marks, maintain double spacing, and place the citation after the final period. Introduce the block quotation with a complete sentence ending in a colon.

Do I need an access date for websites in MLA?

Only when the content has no publication date or is likely to change. For most stable web pages with clear publication dates, the access date is optional. Format: Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

How do I cite a source with no date in MLA?

Simply omit the date from the Works Cited entry and add an access date at the end: Accessed 16 Mar. 2026. In the in-text citation, use the author name (or title if no author) as usual.

What changed in MLA 9th edition vs. 8th edition?

The 9th edition (2021) added a full chapter on inclusive language, explicitly endorsed the use of section headings in longer papers, clarified table formatting (label and title above the table), simplified URL formatting, and updated publisher abbreviations. The core container system and in-text citation format remained the same as the 8th edition.

Related Resources

• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA Format: Complete Guide
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

APA format is the most widely required citation style in the social sciences, psychology, education, nursing, and business. Whether you’re writing your first undergraduate paper or finishing a graduate thesis, getting your citations right matters — both for academic integrity and for your grade. This guide covers every APA citation format you’ll actually need, with copy-ready examples for every source type.

All examples follow APA 7th edition (2020), the current standard. If your institution or course materials reference the 6th edition, note the key differences at the end of this guide.

APA Citation: Two Components You Always Need

Every APA citation has two parts that must match each other:

• In-text citation — appears in the body of your paper, immediately after the information you’re citing
• Reference list entry — appears on the References page at the end of your paper, with full publication details

Every source cited in the text must have a corresponding entry in the reference list. Every entry in the reference list must be cited at least once in the text. If a source appears in one place but not the other, the citation is incomplete.

APA In-Text Citations: The Author-Date Format

APA uses the author-date format for in-text citations. The author’s last name and the year of publication appear in parentheses. For direct quotes, add the page number.

One Author

Paraphrase: (Smith, 2024)
Direct quote: (Smith, 2024, p. 45)
Author named in sentence: Smith (2024) found that…

Two Authors

Always include both authors every time you cite the work. Use «&» inside parentheses; use «and» in the sentence.
Parenthetical: (Smith & Jones, 2024)
Narrative: Smith and Jones (2024) argued…

Three or More Authors

Use only the first author’s name followed by «et al.» — from the very first citation.
Parenthetical: (Brown et al., 2023)
Narrative: Brown et al. (2023) demonstrated…

Group or Organisation as Author

Spell out the full name on the first citation with the abbreviation in brackets. Use the abbreviation on subsequent citations.
First citation: (World Health Organization [WHO], 2023)
Subsequent: (WHO, 2023)
If no abbreviation is commonly used, spell out the full name every time: (National Institute of Mental Health, 2024)

No Author

Use a shortened version of the title in place of the author. Italicise book and website titles; put article and chapter titles in quotation marks.
Book or website: (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2022)
Article: («APA Style Overview,» 2024)

No Date

Use «n.d.» (no date) in place of the year.
(Smith, n.d.)

Multiple Citations in One Set of Parentheses

List citations alphabetically by first author’s name, separated by semicolons.
(Brown et al., 2023; Smith & Jones, 2024; Wilson, 2022)

Two Works by the Same Author, Same Year

Add lowercase letters after the year to distinguish them, matching the reference list entries.
(Smith, 2024a)
(Smith, 2024b)

Secondary Source (Citing a Source You Found Inside Another Source)

If you read Smith (2020) who cites Jones (2015), and you cannot access the Jones original:
(Jones, 2015, as cited in Smith, 2020)
In the reference list, include only Smith — the source you actually read.

Personal Communications (Emails, Interviews, Conversations)

Cite in the text only — do not include in the reference list, because the reader cannot retrieve them.
(J. Smith, personal communication, March 10, 2026)

Direct Quotes in APA

When you reproduce the exact words of a source, enclose them in quotation marks and include the page number in the citation. If the source has no page numbers (like many websites), use paragraph numbers (para. 3) or section headings («Introduction» section, para. 2).

Short quote (fewer than 40 words): Include in the text with quotation marks.
Smith (2024) found that «the relationship between variables was stronger than expected» (p. 45).

Long quote (40 words or more): Format as a block quotation. Start on a new line, indent the entire block 0.5 inches, do not use quotation marks. Place the citation after the final punctuation.
Smith (2024) summarised the findings as follows:

The results confirmed the hypothesis across all four conditions. Effect sizes were consistent with those reported in previous literature, suggesting that the intervention produces reliable outcomes regardless of participant age or baseline score. (p. 47)

APA Reference List Format: The Basics

The reference list starts on a new page at the end of the paper with the centred, bold heading References. All entries are double-spaced and use a hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches). Entries are listed alphabetically by first author’s last name.

The general APA reference format is: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Publisher. https://doi.org/xxxxx

How to Cite a Journal Article in APA

Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume(Issue), page–page. https://doi.org/xxxxx

One author:
Brown, T. (2023). Cognitive flexibility and academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

Two authors:
Smith, K., & Jones, P. (2024). Longitudinal predictors of student motivation. Learning and Instruction, 89, 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.000000

Three to twenty authors (list all):
Brown, T., Williams, K., & Patel, S. (2023). Effects of peer feedback on writing quality. Written Communication, 40(2), 201–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0000000000000000

Twenty-one or more authors (list first 19, then ellipsis, then last author):
Garcia, A., Lee, B., Kim, C., Park, D., Wilson, E., Chen, F., … Zhang, Y. (2024). Global patterns in academic achievement. Comparative Education Review, 68(1), 1–45.

Article with no DOI (available online):
Thompson, R. (2023). Formative assessment practices in higher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 128, 104–119. https://www.example.com/article

Article with no DOI (print only):
Wilson, D. (2022). Narrative identity in adolescent writing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 66(1), 23–31.

How to Cite a Book in APA

Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book (edition). Publisher.

Single author:
Johnson, M. (2021). The psychology of learning. Sage Publications.

Two authors:
Clarke, E., & Hall, R. (2022). Research methods in the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

Edited book:
Martinez, C. (Ed.). (2023). Advances in cognitive science. Oxford University Press.

Chapter in an edited book:
Lee, S. (2023). Memory consolidation during sleep. In C. Martinez (Ed.), Advances in cognitive science (pp. 45–78). Oxford University Press.

Book with edition:
Smith, K., & Jones, P. (2024). Introduction to research design (3rd ed.). American Psychological Association.

Book with DOI:
Wilson, D. (2023). Writing history: A guide for students (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0000000000

Note on publisher location (APA 7th edition): Do not include the publisher’s city or state. APA 7th edition removed this requirement.

How to Cite a Website in APA

Format: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of page. Site Name. URL

With author and date:
Smith, J. (2024, October 15). Understanding cognitive biases in decision-making. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/example

With organisation as author:
American Psychological Association. (2023, November 1). APA style guide for citations. https://apastyle.apa.org/example

No author:
Title of the web page. (Year, Month Day). Site Name. URL

No date:
Smith, J. (n.d.). Title of the web page. Site Name. https://www.example.com

No author, no date:
Title of the web page. (n.d.). Site Name. https://www.example.com

Note: APA 7th edition does not require a «Retrieved from» statement before the URL unless the content is likely to change over time (like a wiki or institutional policy page, where you might add «Retrieved March 15, 2026, from»).

For no-author pages, government sites, Wikipedia entries, and blog posts, see our full guide on how to cite a website in APA 7.

How to Cite a YouTube Video or Online Video in APA

Format: Author, A. A. [Screen name]. (Year, Month Day). Title of video [Video]. Platform. URL

YouTube channel with real name:
Smith, J. [JohnSmithPsych]. (2024, February 20). How cognitive load affects memory retention [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=example

YouTube channel with only a screen name:
Psychology Explained. (2024, June 12). The science of motivation [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=example

TED Talk:
Brown, B. (2010, June). The power of vulnerability [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/example

How to Cite a Podcast in APA

Podcast episode:
Host, A. A. (Host). (Year, Month Day). Episode title (No. episode number) [Audio podcast episode]. In Podcast Name. Production Company. URL

Example:
Raz, G. (Host). (2023, September 15). The science of habit formation (No. 412) [Audio podcast episode]. In How I Built This. NPR. https://www.npr.org/podcasts/example

How to Cite Social Media in APA

Twitter/X post:
Author, A. A. [@username]. (Year, Month Day). First 20 words of the tweet [Tweet]. Platform. URL

Smith, J. [@johnsmith]. (2024, March 5). New study confirms link between sleep quality and academic performance — see thread for [Tweet]. Twitter/X. https://x.com/example

Instagram post:
American Psychological Association [@APAstyle]. (2024, January 20). New citation guidelines now available on our website. Check the link in bio for [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/example

How to Cite a Report or Government Document in APA

Government report:
National Institute of Mental Health. (2023). Mental health statistics 2023 (NIMH Publication No. 23-MH-8088). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/example

Report from a private organisation:
World Health Organization. (2024). Global health report 2024. https://www.who.int/example

How to Cite a Dissertation or Thesis in APA

Published (from ProQuest or institutional repository):
Smith, J. (2023). The role of metacognition in academic self-regulation [Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. https://www.proquest.com/example

Unpublished:
Jones, P. (2024). Predictors of student retention in online learning environments [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Stanford University.

How to Cite a Newspaper Article in APA

Online newspaper article:
Brown, T. (2024, December 10). Study finds exercise improves classroom performance. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/example

Print newspaper article:
Brown, T. (2024, December 10). Study finds exercise improves classroom performance. The New York Times, B4.

How to Cite a Film or TV Show in APA

Film:
Nolan, C. (Director). (2010). Inception [Film]. Warner Bros. Pictures.

TV series (whole series):
Gilligan, V. (Executive Producer). (2008–2013). Breaking Bad [TV series]. AMC.

Single episode:
Johnson, A. (Director). (2023, November 5). The reunion (Season 4, Episode 8) [TV series episode]. In V. Gilligan (Executive Producer), Example Series. Production Company.

APA Reference List: Formatting Rules Checklist

• Starts on a new page, heading «References» centred and bold
• All entries double-spaced — no extra blank line between entries
• Hanging indent: first line flush left, all subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches
• Alphabetical by first author’s last name
• Multiple works by same author: order by year, earliest first
• Multiple works by same author in same year: add a, b, c after the year
• DOIs formatted as hyperlinks: https://doi.org/xxxxx
• No publisher city required (APA 7th edition)
• Only the first word of article titles and book titles capitalised (and proper nouns) — journal names use title case
• Journal names and book titles in italics; article and chapter titles in plain text

APA 7th Edition vs. 6th Edition: Key Differences

If your course materials reference the 6th edition, here are the most important citation-related changes in the 7th edition:

• Three or more authors → et al. from the first citation. In the 6th edition, you listed up to five authors before using et al.; in the 7th edition, use et al. for any work with three or more authors from the very first citation.
• Up to 20 authors in the reference list. In the 6th edition, you listed the first six authors and then et al. Now you list all authors up to 20.
• DOI format changed. The 6th edition used «doi:» followed by the number. The 7th edition uses the full hyperlink format: https://doi.org/xxxxx.
• Publisher location removed from book references. The 7th edition no longer requires city and state for book publishers.
• Running head removed for student papers. Student papers no longer need a running head — only professional papers do.
• «Retrieved from» mostly removed. Unless content is likely to change, you no longer write «Retrieved from» before a URL.

Common APA Citation Mistakes to Avoid

• Using «&» in the sentence text — «&» goes inside parentheses only: (Smith & Jones, 2024). In narrative citations, write «and»: Smith and Jones (2024).
• Missing page number in direct quotes — Every direct quotation requires a page number or location indicator.
• Not matching in-text citations to reference list — Every citation must appear in both places, with identical author names and years.
• Capitalising article and book titles in the reference list — Only the first word and proper nouns are capitalised in titles of articles and books. Journal names use title case.
• Using the author’s first name — APA uses initials only in the reference list: Brown, T., not Brown, Tom.
• Listing sources that were not cited — The reference list is not a bibliography of everything you read. Only sources you cited go in the list.
• Using «pp.» for journal page numbers — «pp.» (with double p) is used for book chapters; use just page numbers for journal articles: 45–67, not pp. 45–67.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need a page number for paraphrases in APA?

APA 7th edition does not require page numbers for paraphrases — only for direct quotations. However, the Publication Manual encourages you to include page numbers for paraphrases too, especially when the source is long and the specific location would help the reader. Many professors require page numbers for all citations, so check your course guidelines.

How do I cite a source with no date?

Use «n.d.» (no date) in place of the year in both the in-text citation and the reference list entry: (Smith, n.d.) and Smith, J. (n.d.). This is common for undated web pages and some institutional documents.

How do I cite a source with no author?

Move the title to the author position in the reference list. In the in-text citation, use a shortened version of the title in italics (for books and websites) or in quotation marks (for articles and chapters). Never use «Anonymous» unless the work explicitly credits «Anonymous» as the author.

Can I cite the same source multiple times?

Yes — cite the source every time you use information from it. Do not assume the reader remembers a source you cited three paragraphs earlier. APA does not use «ibid.» Each citation is repeated in full (author, year) every time it appears.

How do I cite a source found through Google Scholar?

Cite the original source — the journal article, book, or report — not Google Scholar itself. Use the full citation format for whatever type of source it is. If you accessed the full text through a database, use the database URL or DOI. If you read the Google Scholar preview only, go find and read the actual source.

How do I cite ChatGPT or an AI tool in APA?

APA guidance for citing generative AI (updated 2023): treat the AI as the author, with the company as a group author. For ChatGPT: OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (March 2024 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com. In-text: (OpenAI, 2024). Include the specific version if known. Always check whether your institution permits AI use and follow any additional attribution guidelines they require.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026
• How to Avoid Plagiarism: Complete Guide

MLA format is the standard citation style for English literature, language studies, comparative literature, film, and most humanities courses. If your professor requires MLA 9th edition and you need a properly formatted paper to start from, this page gives you a ready-to-use MLA format template for Word — download it, fill in your content, and submit.

Download MLA Format Template for Word

The template follows MLA 9th edition (2021) requirements. It includes the four-line header, centered title, double-spaced body with in-text citation examples, an optional section headings example, a comparison table, and a complete Works Cited page with ten formatted entries.

Free download · MLA 9th edition · Microsoft Word compatible · No registration needed

What’s Included in the MLA Template

• Four-line header — Student name, professor name, course name, and date — correctly positioned top left, no separate title page
• Centered title — In title case, no bold, no underline, no quotation marks
• Double-spaced body — Times New Roman 12pt, 1-inch margins, 0.5-inch first-line indent on every paragraph
• In-text citation examples — Author-page format (Smith 45), two authors, three or more (et al.), no page number, same-author disambiguation
• Optional section headings — Bold, flush left, title case — acceptable in longer MLA papers
• Sample table — MLA-style table with label and title above
• Works Cited page — Ten fully formatted entries: journal articles, books, edited volumes, a website, and a literary primary source

MLA Format Requirements: The Complete Guide

MLA format looks simpler than APA at first glance — no title page, no abstract, no running head — but its citation system has specific rules that differ meaningfully from other styles. This guide covers everything you need to format an MLA paper correctly.

Page Setup

MLA papers use standard US Letter paper (8.5 × 11 inches) with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font is Times New Roman 12pt. All text is double-spaced throughout the paper — the header, title, body, block quotations, and Works Cited. The first line of every paragraph is indented 0.5 inches. Do not add extra space between paragraphs.

Header and Title (No Title Page)

MLA student papers do not use a separate title page. Instead, a four-line block appears at the top left of the first page, double-spaced like the rest of the paper:

• Line 1: Your full name
• Line 2: Your professor’s name
• Line 3: The course name and number
• Line 4: The date (Day Month Year format: 14 March 2026)

After the four-line block, the title appears centered on the next double-spaced line. The title uses title case but is not bold, underlined, or in quotation marks — unless it contains a title that would normally be italicized or in quotation marks (e.g., An Analysis of Beloved).

Page Numbers

MLA page numbers appear in the top right header with your last name before them: Smith 1, Smith 2, etc. In Word, set this as a right-aligned header with your last name, a space, and then an automatic page number field. Page numbers begin on the first page of text.

In-Text Citations: Author-Page Format

MLA in-text citations use the author’s last name and the page number, with no comma between them, enclosed in parentheses. The citation goes before the closing punctuation of the sentence.

• One author, paraphrase: (Smith 45)
• One author, direct quote: (Smith 45) — same format
• Two authors: (Smith and Jones 78)
• Three or more authors: (Brown et al. 112)
• No page number (website, etc.): (Johnson) — omit page reference
• Author named in sentence: Smith argues that «[quote]» (45). — only the page number in parentheses
• Two works by same author: (Smith, «Article Title» 45) or (Smith, Book Title 112)
• Two authors with same last name: (J. Smith 45) and (M. Smith 23)
• No author: Use a shortened version of the title: («Article Title» 45) or (Book Title 112)
• Entire work (no specific page): (Morrison) — just the author name

Block Quotations

When a quotation is longer than four lines of prose (or more than three lines of poetry), use a block quotation. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin — do not use quotation marks. The citation goes after the final punctuation, not before it (the opposite of regular quotes). Introduce the block quotation with a complete sentence and a colon.

MLA Works Cited Format for Every Source Type

The Works Cited page begins on a new page after the body of the paper. The heading «Works Cited» is centered and not bold. Entries are listed alphabetically by the first element (usually author’s last name) and use a hanging indent — first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches. The entire page is double-spaced.

MLA 9th edition uses a universal «container» format for all source types, which makes the system more flexible than previous editions. The core elements, in order, are: Author. Title of Source. Title of Container, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location.

Journal Article

Last, First. «Title of Article.» Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Year, pp. ##–##.

Example: Clarke, Emily. «Close Reading in the Digital Age.» New Literary History, vol. 54, no. 1, 2023, pp. 34–58.

Book

Last, First. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.

Example: Johnson, Michael. The Art of Literary Analysis. Oxford UP, 2022.

Book Chapter (Edited Collection)

Last, First. «Title of Chapter.» Title of Book, edited by First Last, Publisher, Year, pp. ##–##.

Website

Last, First. «Title of Page.» Name of Site, Publisher or Sponsor, Day Month Year, URL.

Note: MLA 9th edition recommends including the access date for websites only when the content is likely to change or has no publication date: Accessed 14 Mar. 2026.

Article in an Online Database

Last, First. «Title of Article.» Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Year, pp. ##–##. Database Name, DOI or URL.

Film or Video

Title of Film. Directed by First Last, Production Company, Year.

Poem from an Anthology

Last, First. «Title of Poem.» Title of Anthology, edited by First Last, Publisher, Year, pp. ##–##.

MLA 9th Edition: Key Changes from the 8th Edition

MLA 9th edition (2021) introduced several changes from the 8th edition (2016). If you have older course materials, here are the most important updates:

• Inclusive language guidance added — The 9th edition added a chapter on inclusive language, including guidance on avoiding bias in writing.
• Section headings now endorsed — The 9th edition explicitly endorses using headings in longer papers, which was ambiguous in the 8th edition.
• Formatting for tables clarified — Tables are labeled «Table» followed by an Arabic numeral, with the label and title above the table.
• URL formatting simplified — URLs no longer need to be broken at punctuation marks at line breaks; let the word processor wrap naturally.
• Abbreviations updated — Some publisher abbreviations changed (e.g., «U» for University in publisher names: «Oxford UP» not «Oxford University Press»).
• Author format clarified for two+ names — The first author is inverted (Last, First), but additional authors are listed normally (First Last) separated by «and.»

How to Use the MLA Template: Step-by-Step

1. Fill in the four-line header — Replace the placeholder lines with your name, your professor’s name, the course name, and the date (Day Month Year format).
2. Replace the centered title — Use title case. Do not bold, underline, or add quotation marks unless the title contains an italicized work title.
3. Update the page header — In Word: Insert → Header → Edit Header → type your last name, a space, then Insert → Page Number → Top of Page → Plain Number 3 (right-aligned).
4. Write your introduction — The template has working citation examples. Follow the same pattern: (Author Page) for all in-text citations.
5. Use section headings if needed — For longer papers, bold flush-left headings in title case are acceptable. Remove them for shorter essays where they’re unnecessary.
6. Replace the sample table — Rename Table 1 and update the data. Keep the label and title above the table.
7. Build your Works Cited — Replace the ten example entries with your actual sources. Keep the hanging indent and alphabetical order.

Common MLA Format Mistakes

• Using a title page — MLA student papers use a four-line header, not a separate title page. Adding a title page is incorrect unless your professor specifically requests one.
• Putting a comma in the citation — MLA uses (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). No comma between author and page number.
• Adding «p.» before the page number — MLA in-text citations omit the abbreviation: (Smith 45), not (Smith p. 45). Only the Works Cited uses «pp.» for page ranges.
• Bolding or underlining the title — The paper title on the first page should be in plain title case — no bold, no underline, no quotation marks.
• Not including page numbers in the header — Every MLA paper needs a last-name-page-number header (Smith 1) on every page, including the first.
• Calling the bibliography «Works Cited» but including unread sources — Works Cited includes only sources you actually cited in the paper. If you want to include additional sources, use a separate «Works Consulted» list.
• Forgetting the hanging indent in Works Cited — Every Works Cited entry uses a hanging indent: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches. This is the opposite of a standard paragraph indent.
• Using «Ibid.» or footnotes for citations — MLA does not use ibid. Every citation repeats the author and page, every time. Footnotes in MLA are used only for supplementary commentary, not for citations.

MLA vs. APA vs. Chicago: When to Use Each

The choice of citation style depends on your discipline and often on your professor’s explicit instructions. MLA is standard in English literature, literary criticism, languages, and most humanities courses at the undergraduate level. APA is required in psychology, education, nursing, and the social sciences. Chicago is required in history, philosophy, and some interdisciplinary humanities programs.

The most visible differences between MLA and the other formats: MLA has no title page and no abstract; APA and Chicago both use title pages. MLA uses author-page citations (Smith 45); APA uses author-date (Smith, 2024); Chicago uses footnotes. MLA calls its bibliography «Works Cited»; APA calls it «References»; Chicago calls it «Bibliography.»

Frequently Asked Questions

Does MLA 9th edition require a title page?

No. Standard MLA student papers use a four-line header at the top left of the first page (your name, professor’s name, course, date), not a separate title page. Some professors or institutions do request a title page — if yours does, follow their specific instructions. The template uses the standard MLA header format.

How do I cite a website in MLA when there’s no author?

When a website has no identified author, begin the Works Cited entry with the title of the page in quotation marks. In the in-text citation, use a shortened version of the title in quotation marks: («MLA Format» 3) if there are page numbers, or («MLA Format») if there are none. Never use the website’s URL as the citation.

What is the difference between Works Cited and a Bibliography in MLA?

Works Cited includes only the sources you actually cited in your paper — every source in the text must appear in Works Cited, and every entry in Works Cited must be cited in the text. A bibliography (or «Works Consulted») includes sources you read but did not necessarily cite. Most MLA papers require a Works Cited, not a full bibliography. Check your assignment instructions to confirm which is expected.

Do I need to include the access date for websites in MLA?

MLA 9th edition recommends including an access date («Accessed 14 Mar. 2026») only when the content is likely to change over time or when no publication date is available. For stable websites with a clear publication date, the access date is optional. When in doubt, include it — it adds information without hurting the citation.

Can I use headings in an MLA paper?

Yes. MLA 9th edition endorses section headings for longer papers where they help the reader navigate the content. Headings should be in bold, flush left, and in title case. MLA does not specify multiple heading levels the way APA does — use a simple, consistent system that reflects the structure of your paper. For short essays of five pages or fewer, headings are usually unnecessary.

How do I format a long quotation in MLA?

Quotations of more than four lines of prose (or more than three lines of poetry) should be formatted as block quotations. Start on a new line, indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, maintain double spacing, and do not use quotation marks. Place the parenthetical citation after the final punctuation — the opposite of regular in-text citations. Introduce the block quotation with a sentence that ends in a colon.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template Word — Free Download
• Chicago Style Template Word — Free Download
• Harvard Referencing Template Word — Free Download
• IEEE Format Template Word — Free Download