Categoría: Normas APA

Reading about MLA format is one thing. Seeing a complete MLA format example with every element labeled is another. This guide gives you a fully annotated paper showing exactly what MLA 9th edition looks like in practice — so you can compare your own paper against a real model.

Get the Free MLA Template First

Before we walk through the examples, grab the pre-formatted Word template. It has everything set up: the four-line header, Times New Roman 12pt, double spacing, 0.5-inch paragraph indent, and a Works Cited page with the correct hanging indent.

MLA Format Example: Page 1 Header and Title

MLA does not use a title page. Instead, a four-line header appears at the top left of page 1, followed by the centered title. Here’s what it looks like:

Jane R. Smith                                                    Smith 1
Professor David Johnson
ENG 201: American Literature
25 March 2026

             The Role of Memory in Toni Morrison's Beloved

    The opening lines of Toni Morrison's Beloved confront the reader with...

What to notice:

• The header is at the top left, in the body of the page — not in the Word header/footer area (though the page number IS in the Word header, top right)
• The date format is Day Month Year: 25 March 2026 (not March 25, 2026)
• The title is centered, in title case, not bold, not italic, not underlined
• The first paragraph is indented 0.5 inches — including the first paragraph
• «Smith 1» appears in the top right corner of every page (your last name + page number)

MLA Format Example: In-Text Citations

Paraphrase (no page number needed for most sources)

Morrison’s use of fragmented chronology has been interpreted as a formal enactment of traumatic memory (Gates 112).

Direct quote under 4 lines (inline)

The novel’s haunting is explicit from its opening: «124 was spiteful» (Morrison 1). This declaration introduces a house that has been marked by violence before the reader meets any of its occupants.

Rule: The citation goes inside the period’s placement for inline quotes — the period comes AFTER the closing parenthesis: (Morrison 1).

Block quote (4 or more lines)

For quotes of four or more lines of prose, use a block quote: indent the entire quotation 0.5 inches from the left margin, with no quotation marks, and place the citation after the final punctuation.

Morrison's Beloved complicates the boundary between past and present
through Sethe's continuous reliving of her trauma:

        Sethe worked hard to remember as close to nothing as was safe.
        Unfortunately her brain was devious, loading and offloading
        things that had no right to be there. (Morrison 6)

This involuntary remembering...

Author named in sentence

As Morrison herself has observed in interviews, the novel’s emotional core is the unspeakable nature of certain historical experiences (45).

When you name the author in your sentence, only the page number goes in the parenthetical.

Two works by the same author

Morrison’s exploration of communal memory (Beloved 87) differs significantly from her treatment of individual identity (Song 234).

When you cite two works by the same author, add a shortened title so the reader knows which work you mean.

Website or source with no page numbers

Recent scholarship has expanded the critical conversation around the novel (Thompson).

If there are no page numbers (website, e-book without pages), just use the author’s last name.

MLA Format Example: Works Cited Page

The Works Cited page starts on a new page, with «Works Cited» centered at the top (no bold, no italic, no quotation marks). Entries are alphabetical by the first word of each entry, double-spaced throughout, with a hanging indent.

                              Works Cited

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-
        American Literary Criticism. Oxford UP, 1988.

Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Plume, 1988.

---. Song of Solomon. Vintage, 1977.

Thompson, Ayanna. "Trauma and the Beloved." PMLA, vol. 118, no. 3,
        2024, pp. 445-461.

What to notice in this Works Cited example:

• «Gates, Henry Louis, Jr.» — the Jr. stays with the name, after a comma
• Publisher names are shortened: Oxford University Press becomes Oxford UP
• Three hyphens (—) replace Morrison’s name in the second entry since she’s the same author as the entry above
• Journal volume and issue: vol. 118, no. 3 (not 118(3) as in APA)
• The year comes near the end in MLA, not immediately after the author
• Hanging indent: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5″

MLA Page Format Quick Reference

The Most Common MLA Format Mistakes

• Creating a title page — MLA does not use a title page for student papers. Use the four-line header on page 1 instead.
• Bolding or underlining the title — The paper title is plain text in title case. Your own title gets no special formatting in MLA.
• Putting the period before the citation for inline quotes — In MLA, the period goes AFTER the closing parenthesis: (Smith 45). This is different from block quotes, where the period comes before the citation.
• Using «Bibliography» instead of «Works Cited» — MLA calls it Works Cited, always. Never Bibliography or References.
• Writing the date in US format — MLA uses Day Month Year: 25 March 2026. Not March 25, 2026.

Related Resources

• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Cite in MLA: Complete Guide
• APA vs MLA: Key Differences
• APA Format Template for Word

Getting the IEEE paper format wrong can get your manuscript rejected before a reviewer even reads your abstract. Whether you’re submitting to a conference or a journal, this guide walks you through every formatting requirement — and gives you a free IEEE paper format Word template to start from so you don’t have to set it up from scratch.

Download the IEEE Paper Format Template

Before diving into the rules, grab the pre-formatted template. It has the two-column layout, correct margins, Times New Roman 10pt body text, IEEE reference format, and a sample table already set up.

IEEE Paper Format: Core Requirements

How to Set Up IEEE Paper Format in Word

Step 1: Set page margins

Go to Layout → Margins → Custom Margins. Set: Top = 0.75″, Bottom = 1″, Left = 0.625″, Right = 0.625″. Click OK.

Step 2: Create the two-column layout

The title, author names, affiliation, abstract, and keywords are in a single column. The body text is in two columns. To achieve this in Word, use section breaks. Place your cursor after the keywords section, then go to Layout → Breaks → Continuous. Then select the text from that point onward and go to Layout → Columns → Two.

For the column spacing: go to Layout → Columns → More Columns. Set each column width to 3.5″ and the spacing (gutter) to 0.25″. Check «Equal column width.»

Step 3: Set the correct fonts

Select all body text (Ctrl+A after the two-column section break) and set Times New Roman 10pt. The abstract should be 9pt italic. Reference entries should be 8–9pt. Apply these as paragraph styles to make future editing easier.

Step 4: Format section headings correctly

IEEE section headings (I. Introduction, II. Related Work, etc.) are in Roman numerals, small caps, centered. In Word, apply Small Caps via Format → Font → check Small Caps. The heading text is 10pt Times New Roman, not bold.

Subsection headings (A. Background) are italic, left-aligned, 10pt, with the subsection letter in italics followed by a period.

IEEE Title and Author Block

The paper title spans the full page width (single column), centered, in a large display font. IEEE doesn’t mandate an exact font for the title — the template typically uses Times New Roman or a similar serif at 24pt, bold.

Author names appear below the title, centered, in 11pt. Beneath each author name, list the affiliation (department, university, city, country) in 9pt italic. For papers with multiple authors at different institutions, use superscript numbers to link authors to affiliations.

Example author block:

Jane R. Smith¹, Michael T. Jones²
¹Department of Electrical Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
²Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

IEEE Abstract and Keywords

The abstract is a single paragraph of approximately 150 words. It begins with the word Abstract in bold italic, followed by an em dash: Abstract—Your abstract text begins here… The abstract text is in 9pt italic.

Keywords appear on a new line below the abstract: Index Terms—term one, term two, term three. Capitalize only the first term and proper nouns. Use 3–5 terms selected from the IEEE Thesaurus when possible.

IEEE Reference Format

IEEE uses a numbered citation system. In-text: cite with the reference number in square brackets: [1], [2], or [1]–[3] for a range. References are numbered in order of first appearance in the text.

Journal article

[1] T. J. Brown, K. Smith, and M. Davis, «Cognitive load in distributed systems,» IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst., vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 1234–1245, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1109/TNNLS.2024.0000000.

Conference paper

[2] M. A. Johnson, «Adaptive algorithms for real-time signal processing,» in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Acoustics, Speech Signal Process., Seoul, Korea, Apr. 2024, pp. 456–460.

Book

[3] S. Haykin, Communication Systems, 4th ed. New York, NY, USA: Wiley, 2001.

Figures and Tables in IEEE Format

Figures: The caption goes below the figure. Label as «Fig. 1.» (abbreviated, not «Figure»). Caption text is 8pt. Figures must fit within a single column (3.5″) or span the full page width for larger images. In-text reference: «…as shown in Fig. 1.»

Tables: The caption goes above the table. Label as «TABLE I» in small caps (Roman numerals for tables, Arabic numerals for figures). Caption is 8pt, centered above the table. In-text: «…as listed in Table I.»

IEEE Format: Common Mistakes

• Using the wrong margin values — IEEE margins are asymmetric and narrow. Don’t use the default 1-inch all-around Word setting.
• Putting figure captions above the figure — Figure captions go below. Table captions go above. This is reversed from what many students expect.
• Numbering references alphabetically — IEEE references are numbered in order of first citation. Do not alphabetize.
• Using «Figure» instead of «Fig.» — IEEE abbreviates «Figure» to «Fig.» in both captions and in-text references, except at the beginning of a sentence.
• Applying two-column layout to the title block — Title, authors, abstract, and keywords span the full page width. Only the body uses two columns.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does IEEE require a specific template?

Most IEEE conferences and journals provide their own Word or LaTeX templates. Always download the specific template from the conference or journal’s submission page — requirements vary slightly. The template on this page follows the standard IEEE manuscript format and works for most submissions, but confirm against your target venue’s author guidelines.

Should I use Word or LaTeX for IEEE papers?

Both are accepted. LaTeX is preferred in many IEEE communities (especially engineering and computer science) because it handles equations and two-column layouts more precisely. Word is accepted by all IEEE venues and is more accessible. If you’re new to academic publishing, Word with the correct template is a practical starting point.

Related Resources

• APA vs MLA: Key Differences
• APA Format Template for Word
• How to Format a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract

Most students who plagiarize didn’t mean to. They changed a few words, moved a sentence around, and figured that was enough. It wasn’t — and their professor knew instantly. Learning how to paraphrase without plagiarizing is one of the most valuable writing skills you can develop, and this guide gives you a method that actually works.

What Is Paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing means restating someone else’s idea in your own words and sentence structure while keeping the original meaning intact. You still need to cite the source — paraphrasing is not a way to avoid giving credit. It’s a way to integrate someone else’s idea smoothly into your own writing.

A good paraphrase sounds like you, not like the original author with a few words swapped out.

The 5-Step Method for Paraphrasing Without Plagiarizing

Step 1: Read the original until you understand it fully

Don’t try to paraphrase while you’re reading. Read the passage once — or twice if needed — until you genuinely understand what it’s saying. If you don’t understand it, you can’t paraphrase it accurately.

Step 2: Put the source away

Minimize the window. Put the book face down. Don’t look at the original while you write. This is the single most effective technique for avoiding accidental plagiarism. When you can’t see the original, you can’t copy it.

Step 3: Write the idea in your own words from memory

Write what you remember the source saying, as if you’re explaining it to a friend. Don’t aim for the same sentence structure. Don’t try to reproduce the original’s phrasing. Just capture the idea.

Step 4: Check your version against the original

Now look at the original again. Compare your version. Ask: Did I capture the main idea accurately? Did I accidentally copy any phrases of three or more words? Does my version preserve the original meaning without distorting it?

Step 5: Cite the source

Add your in-text citation. Even a perfect paraphrase requires a citation because the idea came from someone else. In APA: (Author, Year). In MLA: (Author Page). In Chicago: use a footnote.

Paraphrasing Examples: Before and After

Example 1: Word substitution — still plagiarism

Original: «Students who sleep fewer than six hours per night show significant declines in working memory and attention during academic tasks.»

Bad paraphrase (word substitution only): Students who rest for less than six hours each night demonstrate notable decreases in working memory and focus during school assignments.

This is still plagiarism. The sentence structure is identical; only a few words changed. Most plagiarism detectors — and most professors — will catch this.

Example 2: True paraphrase — acceptable

Good paraphrase: Cognitive performance in academic settings — particularly working memory and sustained attention — deteriorates measurably when students get under six hours of sleep (Smith, 2024).

Different structure. Different word order. Same meaning. Citation included. This is what correct paraphrasing looks like.

Example 3: Paraphrase + synthesis (the advanced version)

Even better: Sleep deprivation harms the very cognitive skills students need most. When sleep drops below six hours, working memory and attention both decline significantly (Smith, 2024), which may help explain why all-night study sessions tend to produce worse exam outcomes rather than better ones.

This version paraphrases the source and connects it to a broader point. That’s scholarly writing, not just source management.

The 5 Mistakes That Get Students Caught

• Swapping synonyms without changing structure — Plagiarism detectors and professors recognize sentence structure, not just vocabulary. If your paraphrase has the same shape as the original, it’s not a real paraphrase.
• Paraphrasing sentence by sentence — If you take each sentence from the original and rephrase it in order, your paragraph will mirror the original’s structure and argument flow. Instead, read the whole passage, then write your own paragraph that covers the same ground.
• Forgetting to cite a paraphrase — Many students think citations are only for direct quotes. They’re not. Every idea you take from a source — even if completely rephrased — needs a citation.
• Paraphrasing too closely when the original is very technical — Some technical terms don’t have good synonyms. That’s fine — use the technical term. The structural paraphrase still needs to be genuinely yours.
• Using AI paraphrasing tools carelessly — AI paraphrasers like QuillBot can produce output that reads naturally but still echoes the original structure too closely. Always check the output against the original yourself before submitting.

When to Paraphrase vs When to Quote Directly

Paraphrase most of the time. Use direct quotes sparingly — only when the exact wording matters. Good reasons to quote directly:

• The original phrasing is particularly powerful or distinctive
• You’re analyzing the language itself (literature, rhetoric, law)
• The source is a primary document where exact wording is evidence (historical document, legal text, interview)
• Paraphrasing would lose critical nuance or precision

In most academic writing, the ratio should be roughly 80–90% paraphrase, 10–20% direct quote. Papers that are mostly quotes signal that the writer isn’t engaging analytically with the material.

Paraphrasing vs Summarizing: What’s the Difference?

Paraphrasing restates a specific passage in roughly the same level of detail. Summarizing condenses a larger section — or an entire source — into a shorter version. Both require a citation. Both require genuinely different wording from the original.

Use paraphrasing when you need the full detail of a specific finding or argument. Use summarizing when you need to cover a broader argument or background context efficiently.

APA Paraphrasing Citation Format

In APA 7th edition, in-text citations for paraphrases include the author’s last name and year. Page numbers are encouraged but not required for paraphrases (they’re required for direct quotes).

Paraphrase: (Smith, 2024)
Paraphrase with page: (Smith, 2024, p. 47)
Author in sentence: Smith (2024) found that…

Frequently Asked Questions

Can paraphrasing still be plagiarism?

Yes. If your paraphrase is too close to the original in structure or wording, it’s plagiarism regardless of your intent. And if you paraphrase correctly but forget to cite the source, that’s also plagiarism — you’re presenting someone else’s idea as your own original thought.

Does paraphrasing require a page number in APA?

Page numbers are recommended but not required for paraphrases in APA 7th edition. They’re always required for direct quotations. Including page numbers for paraphrases is good practice, especially in academic papers, because it helps readers find the original passage.

Is it okay to use a paraphrasing tool?

AI paraphrasing tools can be a useful starting point, but don’t submit their output unreviewed. Check the result against the original, verify the meaning is accurate, ensure the structure is genuinely different, and add your in-text citation. Many universities have policies on AI tool usage — check your institution’s guidelines.

Related Resources

• How to Avoid Plagiarism: Complete Guide
• Best Plagiarism Checkers for Students 2026
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• How to Write a Literature Review

Your professor wants a «bibliography» but you’ve been building a «references» section all year. Are they the same thing? Not quite — and getting it wrong can cost you points even when your citations are perfect. Here’s the definitive answer on reference list vs bibliography, with clear examples for every major citation style.

Reference List vs Bibliography: The Core Difference

A reference list includes only the sources you actually cited in your paper. Every source in the list appears somewhere in your text as an in-text citation. If you read a book but didn’t cite it, it doesn’t belong in a reference list.

A bibliography can include sources you consulted but didn’t directly cite — background reading, sources that shaped your thinking, or works that provide context. In Chicago style, the bibliography includes all cited sources. In some disciplines, it also includes uncited works.

The practical difference: a reference list is a strict accounting of your citations. A bibliography is a broader record of your research.

Which Citation Style Uses Which?

Key insight: MLA calls its list «Works Cited» — not «Bibliography» and not «References.» Using the wrong heading is an automatic formatting error, even if every entry inside is perfect.

APA Reference List: Rules and Example

In APA, the reference list appears on a new page at the end of the paper. The heading «References» is centered and bold. Entries are alphabetical by author’s last name, double-spaced throughout, with a hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches).

APA reference list entry — journal article:
Brown, T. J. (2024). Working memory and occupational stress in adults. Journal of Applied Psychology, 109(3), 412–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000000

Every source in this list must have a matching in-text citation: (Brown, 2024). If there’s no in-text citation, the source doesn’t belong here.

Chicago Bibliography: Rules and Example

In Chicago NB, the bibliography appears on a new page with the centered heading «Bibliography.» Like APA, entries are alphabetical and use a hanging indent. Unlike APA, Chicago bibliography entries use periods (not commas) between elements, include the publisher’s city, and use the full first name of the author.

Chicago bibliography entry — book:
Smith, Karen. Research Design in the Social Sciences. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2024.

Chicago bibliographies in history courses often include sources the writer consulted but didn’t directly quote or paraphrase — primary sources reviewed, archives visited, reference works consulted. Always confirm with your professor whether uncited sources should be included.

MLA Works Cited: Rules and Example

MLA is strict: only cited works appear in «Works Cited.» The heading is centered but not bold or italic. Entries are alphabetical, double-spaced, with a hanging indent. MLA uses the full first name of the author and puts the year at the end of the entry.

MLA Works Cited entry — journal article:
Brown, Thomas J. «Working Memory and Occupational Stress in Adults.» Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 109, no. 3, 2024, pp. 412–429.

The Original Insight: Why the Distinction Actually Matters

Here’s something most style guides don’t spell out: the reference list vs bibliography distinction reflects a different philosophy about intellectual transparency.

A reference list is a verification tool — it lets your reader check every claim you made. A bibliography is a research map — it shows the full intellectual terrain you explored, including paths you didn’t follow in the paper itself.

In disciplines like history, where primary sources and archival research matter, the bibliography-as-map is valuable: it tells readers what evidence exists and where you looked. In psychology, where claims must be traceable to specific citations, the reference-list-as-verification is what matters. The choice of term in each style isn’t arbitrary — it reflects how each discipline thinks about evidence and accountability.

Common Mistakes

• Using «Bibliography» in an APA paper — APA calls it «References.» Using the wrong heading signals you don’t know the style.
• Including uncited sources in an APA reference list — APA references must match in-text citations exactly. Sources you read but didn’t cite don’t belong.
• Using «References» in a Chicago NB paper — Chicago NB calls it «Bibliography.» Chicago Author-Date calls it «References.» Know which Chicago system your course uses.
• Calling an MLA list a «bibliography» — It’s «Works Cited.» Always.
• Alphabetizing by first name — All three styles alphabetize by the author’s last name. «Brown, Thomas» goes under B, not T.

Annotated Bibliography vs Regular Bibliography

An annotated bibliography adds a paragraph after each citation that summarizes and evaluates the source. This is a separate assignment type — not just a bibliography with extra information. If your professor assigns an «annotated bibliography,» each entry needs both the citation and a 100–200 word annotation. See the full guide: How to Write an Annotated Bibliography.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can a reference list and bibliography be on the same page?

Generally no — each appears on its own page at the end of the paper. In some Chicago papers, writers maintain a single bibliography that covers all sources (both cited and consulted) without separating them. In APA and MLA, every source in the list was cited, so there’s no need for a separate section.

Does a reference list go before or after appendices?

In APA, the reference list comes before appendices. The order is: body → references → appendices. In Chicago and MLA, the bibliography or works cited page comes after the body text, also before any appendices.

Get Your Free Citation Templates

Download pre-formatted Word templates with reference lists and bibliographies already set up correctly for each style:

• APA Format Template — Free Download
• Chicago Style Template — Free Download
• MLA Format Template — Free Download
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide

Your professor said «use Chicago» and you’ve been formatting APA papers all semester. Or maybe it’s the other way around. Either way, mixing these two styles is one of the fastest ways to lose points on a paper — and the differences run deeper than most students realize. This guide breaks down APA vs Chicago in plain English, with side-by-side examples so you know exactly what to do.

APA vs Chicago: The Core Difference in One Sentence

APA uses author-date parenthetical citations and is built for social sciences. Chicago uses footnotes (or author-date, depending on the system) and is built for history, literature, and the humanities. Everything else flows from that fundamental split.

Quick Comparison Table

Which Disciplines Use APA vs Chicago?

Use APA when your course is in psychology, education, nursing, social work, sociology, criminal justice, communications, or business. The American Psychological Association publishes the style guide, and it dominates the social sciences globally.

Use Chicago when your course is in history, philosophy, political theory, literature, art history, music, theology, or interdisciplinary humanities. Chicago’s Notes-Bibliography system is particularly dominant in history departments at US universities.

Chicago also has an Author-Date system — used in some social science and natural science disciplines — which looks more like APA. If your professor says «Chicago Author-Date,» see the author-date section below.

APA vs Chicago: In-Text Citations Side by Side

APA In-Text Citations

APA puts the author’s last name and year in parentheses. For direct quotes, add the page number.

Paraphrase: (Smith, 2024)
Direct quote: (Smith, 2024, p. 45)
Author in sentence: Smith (2024) found that…
Two authors: (Smith & Jones, 2024)
Three or more: (Brown et al., 2023)

Chicago Notes-Bibliography (NB) In-Text Citations

Chicago NB uses superscript numbers in the text. A matching footnote at the bottom of the page gives the citation details. The first time you cite a source, write the full citation. Every time after that, use a short form.

In-text: Historians have long debated this point.¹

Footnote — first citation:
1. Jane Smith, Advanced Research Methodology (New York: Routledge, 2023), 45.

Footnote — subsequent citation (short form):
3. Smith, Advanced Research, 78.

Chicago Author-Date In-Text Citations

Chicago Author-Date looks almost identical to APA, with one key difference: no comma between author and year.

Chicago AD: (Smith 2024, 45)
APA: (Smith, 2024, p. 45)

The comma placement is a quick tell. Chicago AD uses a comma only before the page number; APA uses a comma after both the author and the year.

APA vs Chicago: Reference List / Bibliography

Journal Article

APA:
Brown, T. (2023). Cognitive flexibility and academic resilience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(4), 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000

Chicago NB — Bibliography:
Brown, Tom. «Cognitive Flexibility and Academic Resilience.» Journal of Educational Psychology 115, no. 4 (2023): 812–829. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000000.

Key differences: APA uses initials (Brown, T.) and puts the year immediately after the author. Chicago uses the full first name and puts the year near the end. APA uses sentence case for article titles; Chicago uses title case. APA formats volume and issue as 115(4); Chicago writes «115, no. 4».

Book

APA:
Smith, K. (2024). Introduction to research design (3rd ed.). American Psychological Association.

Chicago NB — Bibliography:
Smith, Karen. Introduction to Research Design. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2024.

Key differences: APA omits the publisher’s city; Chicago requires it. APA uses sentence case for book titles; Chicago uses title case. APA puts the edition in parentheses; Chicago puts it without parentheses.

Website

APA:
Smith, J. (2024, October 15). Understanding cognitive biases. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/example

Chicago NB — Bibliography:
Smith, John. «Understanding Cognitive Biases.» Psychology Today. October 15, 2024. https://www.psychologytoday.com/example.

APA vs Chicago: Document Format

Title Page

APA student paper: Paper title (bold, centered), your name, department, institution, course name and number, instructor’s name, and due date. All centered and double-spaced. No running head for student papers.

Chicago student paper: Paper title centered roughly one-third down the page. In the lower third, centered: your name, course name and number, instructor’s name, institution, and date. The title page is not numbered.

Footnotes vs. No Footnotes

This is the most practical formatting difference. APA has no footnotes for citations — all citations are parenthetical. APA footnotes exist only for supplementary content notes.

Chicago NB requires footnotes for every citation. These appear at the bottom of the page, single-spaced at 10pt, with a separator line above them. If you’re switching from APA to Chicago, this is the change that requires the most adjustment in how you write — you can no longer just drop a citation at the end of a sentence and move on. Footnotes encourage you to cite more precisely and often.

Headings

APA has a formal five-level heading system with specific bold/italic/indent rules for each level. The introduction never has the heading «Introduction» — the paper title on the first body page serves that function.

Chicago does not prescribe a specific heading system for student papers. Most history and humanities professors expect minimal headings (or none at all) for shorter papers. For longer work, Chicago headings are typically centered and bold for major sections, left-aligned for subsections — but the exact style varies by institution.

The Insight Most Guides Miss: Chicago NB Encourages Richer Scholarship

Here’s something most APA-vs-Chicago comparisons don’t explain: the footnote system isn’t just a different way to cite — it’s a different way to think about scholarship.

In APA, a citation is a parenthetical interruption. In Chicago, a footnote is an opportunity. Historians routinely use footnotes to engage with historiographical debates, add caveats, cite primary sources, or point readers to related scholarship — all without breaking the flow of the main text. A well-footnoted Chicago paper is often a richer, more layered document than its APA equivalent.

If you’re writing in history or philosophy for the first time, don’t treat footnotes as a burden. Treat them as a second track of conversation with your reader.

Common APA vs Chicago Mistakes

• Using parenthetical citations in a Chicago NB paper — Chicago NB requires footnotes, not parenthetical citations. Putting (Smith, 2024) in a Chicago paper is a style error.
• Capitalizing article titles in APA — APA uses sentence case for article and book titles in the reference list. Only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized. Chicago uses title case for everything in the bibliography.
• Omitting the publisher’s city in Chicago — APA dropped the city requirement in the 7th edition. Chicago still requires it: New York: Routledge, not just Routledge.
• Using «References» instead of «Bibliography» in Chicago — APA calls it References. Chicago’s NB system calls it Bibliography. Chicago’s Author-Date system calls it References.
• Repeating the full footnote after the first citation — In Chicago, after the first full footnote, use the short form: Last Name, Short Title, page. Never repeat the full citation in subsequent footnotes.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is Chicago harder than APA?

For most students, yes — initially. The footnote system has two formats (first citation and short form) where APA has one. You also need to manage footnotes in Word, which adds a small technical layer. But once you understand the logic, Chicago is intuitive: you cite in footnotes, list everything alphabetically in the bibliography, done.

Can I use Chicago Author-Date instead of Chicago NB?

Only if your professor specifies it. Chicago Author-Date is used in some social science disciplines. If your professor says «Chicago style» without qualification in a history, philosophy, or humanities course, they almost certainly mean Notes-Bibliography. Confirm with your professor if unsure.

Do APA and Chicago have different word count expectations?

No — neither style manual specifies a word count for papers. That’s set by your professor or the journal you’re submitting to. However, Chicago papers in humanities often run longer than equivalent APA papers because the footnote apparatus adds pages and the writing tradition tends toward more sustained argumentation.

Get the Free Templates

Download pre-formatted Word templates for both styles so you never have to set up margins, footnotes, or heading styles from scratch:

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• Chicago Style Template for Word — Free Download
• APA vs MLA: Key Differences
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide

Vancouver citation style is the standard reference format in medicine, biomedical research, nursing, pharmacy, and the health sciences. It uses numbered in-text citations and a numbered reference list, making papers cleaner to read and easier to navigate than author-date systems. This guide explains the complete Vancouver citation style with examples for every source type you’ll encounter in clinical or biomedical writing.

What Is Vancouver Style?

Vancouver style takes its name from a 1978 meeting in Vancouver, Canada, where a group of medical journal editors agreed on uniform requirements for manuscripts. The resulting format — now maintained by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) — is used by thousands of biomedical journals worldwide, including The Lancet, JAMA, BMJ, and the New England Journal of Medicine.

The defining feature of Vancouver style is its numbered citation system. Sources are numbered in the order they first appear in the text, and the same number is reused each time the source is cited again. The reference list at the end of the paper lists sources in numerical order, not alphabetical order.

Vancouver In-Text Citations

In-text citations in Vancouver style are numbers — either superscripts or in parentheses, depending on the journal’s preference. The number corresponds to the source’s entry in the reference list.

Superscript format (most common)

Randomised controlled trials have shown significant benefits for this intervention.¹²³
The mechanism was first described by Smith et al.¹ and subsequently confirmed by three independent groups.²³⁴

Parenthetical format

Randomised controlled trials have shown significant benefits for this intervention (1,2,3).
The mechanism was first described by Smith et al. (1) and subsequently confirmed by three independent groups (2,3,4).

Key rules for Vancouver in-text citations

• Number sources in the order they first appear in the text
• Reuse the same number each time you cite the same source
• When citing multiple sources at once, list their numbers separated by commas (no spaces): (1,4,7)
• For a consecutive range of numbers, use an en dash: (1-4) means sources 1, 2, 3, and 4
• Place the citation immediately after the relevant text, before any punctuation (before the period, comma, or semicolon)
• You don’t need to mention author names in the text — the number is sufficient. But if you want to: «Smith et al. (1) demonstrated that…»

Vancouver Reference List Format

The reference list in Vancouver style is titled «References» and lists sources in numerical order (not alphabetical). Each entry is numbered to match its in-text citation. The reference list is typically not double-spaced — most journal and institutional formats use single-spacing for the reference list, with a blank line between entries. Check your specific journal’s guidelines.

Vancouver Citation Examples: Every Source Type

Journal Article (Standard)

Format: Author AA, Author BB, Author CC. Title of article. Abbreviated Journal Name. Year;Volume(Issue):Pages.

Up to 6 authors — list all:
Brown TJ, Smith K, Williams RA, Davis MJ, Jones PL, Thompson SR. Cognitive outcomes following early antibiotic exposure in neonates. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23(4):412–21.

7 or more authors — list first 6, then et al.:
Brown TJ, Smith K, Williams RA, Davis MJ, Jones PL, Thompson SR, et al. Long-term cognitive outcomes following early antibiotic exposure. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(8):723–35.

With DOI:
Smith KL, Jones PL. Antibiotic resistance patterns in community-acquired pneumonia. BMJ. 2024;384:e072156. doi:10.1136/bmj-2023-072156.

Key formatting notes: Author initials have no periods between them (Brown TJ, not Brown T.J.). Journal names are abbreviated using standard NLM abbreviations (e.g., Lancet stays Lancet; New England Journal of Medicine becomes N Engl J Med). No space between volume and issue: 23(4), not 23 (4). Pages: give first and last, but contract the last where possible: 412–21 (not 412–421).

Book

Format: Author AA. Title of Book. Edition (if not first). Place of publication: Publisher; Year.

Harrison TR, Kasper DL, editors. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 21st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2022.

Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL. Biochemistry. 9th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman; 2019.

Chapter in Edited Book

Format: Author AA. Title of chapter. In: Editor AA, editor(s). Title of Book. Edition. Place: Publisher; Year. p. pages.

Williams JD. Antimicrobial resistance mechanisms. In: Cohen J, Powderly WG, editors. Infectious Diseases. 4th ed. London: Elsevier; 2023. p. 1145–59.

Website

Format: Author AA or Organisation Name. Title of page [Internet]. Place: Publisher; Year [cited Year Month Day]. Available from: URL

World Health Organization. WHO global report on antimicrobial resistance [Internet]. Geneva: WHO; 2024 [cited 2026 Mar 26]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/example

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management [Internet]. London: NICE; 2023 [cited 2026 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng136

Systematic Review or Meta-Analysis

Cited exactly like a regular journal article. The [Review] or [Meta-Analysis] tag is added in square brackets after the article title only in PubMed display — do not add these tags in your reference list unless specifically required.

Clinical Guideline

National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Depression in adults: recognition and management. Clinical guideline CG90. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE); 2022.

Thesis or Dissertation

Brown TJ. Antibiotic prescribing patterns in primary care: a longitudinal analysis [dissertation]. London: University College London; 2023.

Conference Paper

Smith K, Jones P. Outcomes of early mobilisation in ICU patients. In: Proceedings of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine Annual Congress; 2024 Oct 5–9; Barcelona, Spain. Brussels: ESICM; 2024. p. 112–18.

Vancouver vs. APA vs. Harvard: Key Differences

Common Vancouver Citation Mistakes

• Alphabetising the reference list — Vancouver references are listed in numerical order of first citation, not alphabetically. This is the most fundamental difference from APA and Harvard.
• Using full journal names — Journal names must be abbreviated using NLM standard abbreviations. Look up abbreviations in the NLM Catalog or PubMed.
• Adding periods after author initials — Vancouver uses Brown TJ, not Brown T.J. No periods between or after initials.
• Not contracting page ranges — Vancouver contracts the last page where possible: 412–21, not 412–421; 1145–59, not 1145–1159.
• Forgetting the citation date for websites — Web citations must include the date you accessed the page: [cited 2026 Mar 26].

How Reference Management Software Handles Vancouver

Reference managers like Zotero, Mendeley, and EndNote all include Vancouver as a built-in output style. In Zotero, select «Vancouver» from the citation style dropdown and the software will number citations automatically as you write, renumbering them if you add or remove a source mid-document. This is one of the main reasons researchers in the health sciences rely on these tools: manually tracking numbered citations across a 40-reference paper is error-prone, and inserting a new source at reference 3 would require renumbering everything that follows. The software handles all of that automatically.

One practical limitation to know: different biomedical journals apply Vancouver with slight variations, particularly around punctuation and DOI formatting. Before submitting to a specific journal, download that journal’s Zotero or EndNote style file from the journal’s author guidelines page rather than relying on the generic «Vancouver» style. Small inconsistencies in reference formatting are one of the most common reasons for desk rejection at high-impact medical journals.

Vancouver Style in Student Assignments vs. Journal Submissions

Students in nursing, pharmacy, and medical programs are often taught Vancouver in the classroom before they encounter it in real journal submissions, and there are meaningful differences between the two contexts. Academic assignments typically accept either superscript or parenthetical numbering and do not enforce NLM journal abbreviations strictly — a professor reviewing a student paper generally accepts New England Journal of Medicine written in full. Journal submissions, by contrast, have automated submission systems that flag non-abbreviated journal names and reject manuscripts where the reference list does not match the journal’s specific style sheet. When writing for class, follow your institution’s guidance; when writing for publication, download the exact style instructions from the target journal and match them precisely.

Another difference is how gray literature is handled. In student assignments, citing a government health agency’s website or a hospital’s internal clinical protocol is generally acceptable. In peer-reviewed publication, editors prefer primary literature (randomised controlled trials, systematic reviews, clinical practice guidelines published in indexed journals) over websites or institutional documents. Vancouver’s numbered system does not indicate source type — a gray literature citation looks exactly like a journal article citation — so it falls to the writer to ensure the underlying sources are appropriate for the publication venue.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between Vancouver and NLM style?

Vancouver style and NLM (National Library of Medicine) style are closely related — they use the same numbered citation system and similar reference formats. NLM style is the specific implementation used by PubMed and US government biomedical publications. Most practical differences are minor (some punctuation variations, handling of electronic sources). Many journals specify one or the other; if your journal says «Vancouver,» follow the ICMJE guidelines; if it says «NLM,» follow NLM/PubMed formatting.

How many authors do I list in a Vancouver reference?

List all authors if there are 6 or fewer. If there are 7 or more authors, list the first 6 followed by «et al.» This is the standard ICMJE/Vancouver rule for journal articles. Book references follow the same convention.

Does Vancouver style require a DOI?

Including the DOI is strongly recommended for all journal articles that have one — it makes the reference verifiable and permanent. Format the DOI as a hyperlink: doi:10.1136/bmj-2023-072156. If no DOI is available, include the journal’s URL if the article is available online: Available from: https://…

Related Resources

• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• How to Write a Research Proposal
• Best Citation Generators for Students in 2026

Formatting a research paper correctly is not optional — most professors deduct points for formatting errors, and journals reject manuscripts that don’t follow their style guidelines. This guide covers everything you need to know about research paper format for APA, MLA, and Chicago, with specific rules for every element from the title page to the reference list.

Research Paper Format: General Rules That Apply to All Styles

Regardless of which citation style you use, academic research papers share these universal formatting standards:

• Paper size: US Letter (8.5 × 11 inches) for North American institutions; A4 for UK, EU, and Australian institutions
• Margins: 1 inch on all four sides in all major styles
• Font: Times New Roman 12pt is standard across APA, MLA, and Chicago. APA 7th edition also permits Calibri 11pt, Arial 11pt, Georgia 11pt, and Lucida Sans Unicode 10pt as alternatives.
• Line spacing: Double-spaced throughout (body text, headings, block quotations, reference list)
• Paragraph indent: 0.5 inches for the first line of every paragraph
• No extra space between paragraphs: The double spacing already provides visual separation

APA Research Paper Format

APA Title Page (Student Paper)

APA student papers begin with a title page containing: the paper title (bold, centered, title case), your name, your department and institution on two separate lines, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the due date. All elements are centered and double-spaced. There is no running head on student papers in APA 7th edition. The page number (1) appears in the top right corner of the header.

APA Abstract

The abstract appears on page 2, after the title page. The centered, bold heading «Abstract» appears at the top. The abstract text is a single, unindented paragraph of 150–250 words. Below the abstract, a keywords line: Keywords: (italic, followed by a colon) then 3–5 lowercase keywords separated by commas. The abstract is optional for student papers unless specifically required.

APA Body Text

The body begins on the page after the abstract (or page 2 if no abstract). The paper title is repeated at the top of the first body page, centered and bold — this serves as the Level 1 heading for the introduction. The word «Introduction» is never used as a heading. The body uses APA’s five-level heading system for organization.

APA In-Text Citations

APA uses the author-date format: (Smith, 2024) for paraphrases; (Smith, 2024, p. 45) for direct quotes. Two authors: (Smith & Jones, 2024). Three or more: (Brown et al., 2023). All in-text citations must match an entry in the References list.

APA References Page

The References page begins on a new page. The heading «References» is centered and bold. Entries are alphabetical, double-spaced, with a hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches). Author initials only; year in parentheses immediately after author; sentence case for article and book titles; DOIs as hyperlinks.

MLA Research Paper Format

MLA Header (No Title Page)

MLA does not use a title page for student papers. Instead, a four-line header appears at the top left of page 1, double-spaced, in this order: your full name, your professor’s name, the course name, the date (Day Month Year format: 25 March 2026). The paper title follows on the next double-spaced line, centered, in title case, in regular (not bold, not italic) formatting.

MLA Page Header

Every page (including page 1) has a right-aligned header in the top right corner with your last name and the page number: Smith 1, Smith 2, etc. In Word: Insert → Header → right-align → type your last name, a space, then Insert → Page Number → Current Position → Plain Number.

MLA In-Text Citations

MLA uses the author-page format: (Smith 45). No comma between author and page number. No «p.» before the page number. Two authors: (Smith and Jones 78). Three or more: (Brown et al. 112). No year in the in-text citation — only in the Works Cited entry.

MLA Works Cited Page

Works Cited begins on a new page. The heading «Works Cited» is centered (not bold, not italic). Entries are alphabetical, double-spaced, with a hanging indent. First author is inverted (Last, First); additional authors are not inverted. Article and chapter titles go in quotation marks; book and journal titles are italicized.

Chicago Research Paper Format

Chicago Title Page

Chicago student papers use a title page. The paper title appears centered roughly one-third down the page. In the lower third, also centered: your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, your institution, and the date. The title page is not numbered.

Chicago Page Numbers

Chicago papers number pages in the top right corner. The title page is not numbered. Arabic numerals begin on page 1 (the first page of text). Some dissertations use Roman numerals for front matter (table of contents, etc.) and Arabic numerals for the body text.

Chicago Footnotes

Chicago NB system uses numbered footnotes at the bottom of the page for citations. The first citation of each source gives the full details; subsequent citations use a shortened form. Footnotes are single-spaced at 10pt, with a separator line above the footnote area. The paper body text is double-spaced at 12pt.

Chicago Bibliography

The bibliography appears on a new page at the end with the centered heading «Bibliography.» Entries are alphabetical, double-spaced, with a hanging indent. The first author is inverted. Periods separate elements rather than commas (different from footnote format).

Research Paper Format Comparison Table

Common Research Paper Formatting Mistakes

• Single-spacing instead of double-spacing — All three styles require double spacing throughout, including the reference list. Single-spacing any part of the paper is incorrect.
• Adding extra space between paragraphs — Never press Enter twice between paragraphs. The double-spacing already provides visual separation. This is one of the most common formatting errors in Microsoft Word, often caused by default paragraph spacing settings.
• Not using a hanging indent in the reference list — All three styles require a hanging indent for every bibliography entry. First line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches.
• Wrong heading format for the style — APA headings have five levels with specific bold/italic/indent rules. MLA headings are bold, flush left. Chicago headings may be centered or left-aligned depending on level. Each style’s heading rules are different.
• Using the wrong bibliography section title — APA: «References.» MLA: «Works Cited.» Chicago: «Bibliography.» Using the wrong title for the wrong style is a basic formatting error.

How to Set Up a Research Paper in Microsoft Word

1. Set margins: Layout → Margins → Normal (1 inch all sides).
2. Set font: Select all (Ctrl+A) → Home → Font → Times New Roman, 12pt.
3. Set line spacing: Select all → Home → Line Spacing → 2.0 (double). Critically: also click «Remove Space Before Paragraph» and «Remove Space After Paragraph» in the same menu to prevent extra spacing between paragraphs.
4. Set paragraph indent: Home → Paragraph → Indentation → Special → First Line → 0.5″.
5. Add page number: Insert → Header → Edit Header → right-align → Insert Page Number.

The fastest approach is to download the pre-formatted template for your required style from this site and fill in your content directly.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• MLA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• Chicago Style Template for Word — Free Download
• APA vs MLA: Key Differences

Normas APA 2026 — 7ª edición. Esta guía cubre todo lo que necesitas para aplicar las normas APA correctamente en trabajos escritos, tesis, ensayos y proyectos académicos. Incluye la plantilla Word gratis, la configuración exacta de formato, ejemplos de citas y referencias, y la estructura obligatoria del documento.

¿Qué son las Normas APA?

Las Normas APA (American Psychological Association) son el sistema de formato académico más utilizado en el mundo para trabajos escritos en ciencias sociales, educación, psicología, negocios y humanidades. La versión vigente es la 7ª edición, publicada en 2019 y actualmente estándar en la mayoría de universidades latinoamericanas.

Configuración de formato APA 2026 — tabla rápida

Estructura de un trabajo escrito con Normas APA

1. Portada — título, nombre del autor, institución, departamento, curso, nombre del docente y fecha
2. Resumen (Abstract) — entre 150 y 250 palabras, sin sangría, en una sola página
3. Palabras clave — 3 a 5 palabras clave debajo del resumen
4. Introducción
5. Desarrollo / cuerpo — con encabezados organizados por niveles (1 al 5)
6. Conclusiones
7. Referencias — en orden alfabético, con sangría francesa
8. Apéndices (si aplica)

Niveles de títulos en APA 7ª edición

Cómo citar en Normas APA 2026

APA usa el sistema autor-año: el apellido del autor y el año van entre paræntesis en el texto. Para citas textuales (copia exacta del texto), se agrega el número de página.

1. Cita textual corta (menos de 40 palabras)

Va entre comillas dentro del párrafo, seguida del autor, año y página:
«El aprendizaje es un proceso continuo de transformación» (Martínez, 2021, p. 45).

2. Cita textual larga (40 palabras o más)

Se sangra 1.27 cm por la izquierda, sin comillas, con la cita de autor después del punto final.

3. Cita parafraseada

Reescribes la idea con tus propias palabras, sin comillas:
Según Martínez (2021), el aprendizaje transforma continuamente al individuo.

Para ver todos los tipos de cita con ejemplos, consulta la guía completa de citas y referencias APA.

Cómo hacer las referencias APA 2026

La lista de referencias va al final del documento, ordenada alfabéticamente por el apellido del primer autor, con sangría francesa (primera línea al margen, resto sangrado).

Libro

Apellido, I. (Año). Título del libro en cursiva. Editorial. https://doi.org/xxxxx

Artículo de revista científica

Apellido, I. (Año). Título del artículo. Nombre de la Revista, volumen(número), pp–pp. https://doi.org/xxxxx

Página web

Apellido, I. (Año, Día Mes). Título de la página. Nombre del sitio. https://www.enlace.com

Normas APA para trabajos escritos a mano

Si tu trabajo debe entregarse a mano, aplica estas adaptaciones:

• Letra: Imprenta clara y legible — no cursiva ilegible
• Márgenes: Aproximadamente 2.5 cm por los cuatro lados (puedes marcar con lápiz)
• Interlineado: Escribe en renglones alternos (uno sí, uno no) para simular el doble espacio
• Sangría: 5 espacios o ~1.5 cm al inicio de cada párrafo
• Citas textuales: Entre comillas, igual que en digital
• Referencias: Mismo formato APA, pero si no puedes poner cursiva, usa MAYÚSCULAS SOSTENIDAS para el título del libro o revista

Diferencias clave entre APA 6ª y 7ª edición

Preguntas frecuentes sobre Normas APA 2026

¿Las normas APA cambiaron en 2026?

No. La edición vigente sigue siendo la 7ª (publicada en 2019). No hay una 8ª edición de las normas APA aprobada. Cuando se habla de «normas APA 2026» se refiere a la aplicación actualizada de la 7ª edición, que incluye orientaciones para citar nuevas formas de contenido digital (TikTok, podcasts, AI generativa).

¿Se puede usar Calibri en normas APA?

Sí. La 7ª edición acepta Calibri 11pt, Arial 11pt, Georgia 11pt y Times New Roman 12pt. Lo importante es que uses la misma fuente en todo el documento y que sea legible. Verifica con tu institución si exigen una fuente específica.

¿La portada APA lleva encabezado?

En la 7ª edición, los trabajos estudiantiles (que no son para publicación) ya no llevan encabezado abreviado (running head) en ninguna página. Solo llevan número de página en la esquina superior derecha. Los trabajos profesionales para publicación sí llevan encabezado en todas las páginas.

¿Cómo se cita una página web sin autor en APA?

Cuando no hay autor individual, se usa el nombre de la organización o del sitio web como autor: Wikipedia. (2024). Ingeniería eléctrica. https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/ingenier%C3%ADa_el%C3%A9ctrica

Artículos relacionados: Citas y referencias APA | Verbos para objetivos generales y específicos | Plantilla APA Word | Títulos APA 5 niveles | Cómo hacer el resumen APA | APA vs ICONTEC vs IEEE

A research proposal is a document that argues for the value, feasibility, and design of a study you want to conduct. Whether you’re submitting to a dissertation committee, a funding agency, or an IRB, your proposal must convince readers that your research question is worth answering and that your plan for answering it is sound. This guide shows you exactly how to write a research proposal that gets approved.

What Is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is a formal document outlining the what, why, and how of a proposed study. It differs from a research paper in that it describes research you plan to do, not research you have completed. Its purpose is to persuade a committee, supervisor, or funding body that your research is necessary, original, and achievable within the proposed resources and timeframe.

Research Proposal Structure: All Sections Explained

1. Title

The title should be specific and informative, not vague. It should identify the topic, the population, and ideally the method or variable. Compare: «Social Media and Mental Health» (too vague) vs. «The Relationship Between Instagram Use Frequency and Depressive Symptoms in Undergraduate Women: A Longitudinal Study» (specific, informative, researchable).

2. Abstract or Executive Summary

A 150–300 word overview of the proposal covering: the research problem, the gap you address, your research question, your methodology, and the expected contribution. Write this last, after the full proposal is drafted. Many reviewers read only the abstract initially, so it must be compelling and clear on its own.

3. Introduction and Problem Statement

The introduction establishes the research context and argues for the importance of your question. A strong problem statement does four things: it describes what is known, identifies what is not yet known (the gap), explains why that gap matters (the significance), and presents your research question as the solution to that gap.

The introduction typically closes with a clear, single-sentence research question or the aim of the study: «This study aims to examine whether Instagram use frequency predicts depressive symptom severity in undergraduate women over a 12-week period, controlling for baseline depression and social support.»

4. Literature Review

The literature review in a research proposal is not a full-length chapter — it is a selective synthesis that establishes the intellectual context for your study. It should: demonstrate that you know the relevant scholarship, identify the debate or gap your study addresses, show how your study builds on or departs from existing work, and justify your theoretical framework or conceptual model.

In a proposal, the literature review is typically 1–3 pages for a course-level proposal, 5–10 pages for a dissertation proposal, and 3–5 pages for a grant proposal. The goal is to show sufficient familiarity with the field, not to be encyclopedic.

5. Research Questions and Hypotheses

State your research questions clearly and precisely. Quantitative studies typically have hypotheses that specify the expected direction of relationships: «It is hypothesized that higher Instagram use frequency will be positively associated with greater depressive symptom severity at 12 weeks (H1), with this relationship stronger among women with lower baseline social support (H2).»

Qualitative studies use research questions rather than hypotheses, phrased to allow for emergent findings: «How do undergraduate women describe the relationship between their Instagram use and their emotional wellbeing?»

6. Methodology

The methodology is the most scrutinized section of a research proposal. It must convince reviewers that your design can actually answer your research question. Cover the following:

• Research design: What kind of study is this? (Experimental, quasi-experimental, longitudinal, cross-sectional, case study, ethnographic, etc.) Why is this design appropriate for your research question?
• Participants / Sample: Who will you study? How will you recruit them? How many participants do you need and why (include a brief power analysis for quantitative studies)? What are the inclusion and exclusion criteria?
• Measures and materials: What variables will you measure? What instruments, scales, or tools will you use? Are these validated? What are their psychometric properties?
• Procedure: Walk through what will happen step by step, from recruitment through data collection to data processing.
• Data analysis plan: How will you analyze your data? Name specific statistical tests (for quantitative research) or analytic approaches (for qualitative research). Justify the choice.
• Ethical considerations: How will you protect participants? What risks are involved and how will you mitigate them? Have you identified the relevant IRB or ethics committee?

7. Timeline

Present a realistic schedule showing when each phase of the research will be completed: literature review refinement, IRB approval, participant recruitment, data collection, data analysis, writing, and submission. Use a Gantt chart or a simple table for clarity. Be conservative — reviewers know that research takes longer than anticipated, and an overly optimistic timeline raises credibility concerns.

8. Budget (if applicable)

Grant proposals require a detailed budget with justification for each line item: personnel costs, participant compensation, materials, software, travel, indirect costs. Every budget item should be tied to a specific activity in the methodology. Never inflate the budget and never underestimate — an unrealistic budget in either direction undermines credibility.

9. Expected Outcomes and Significance

What do you expect to find? How will those findings contribute to the field? What are the theoretical, practical, or policy implications? This section answers the reviewer’s implicit question: «So what?» Even if your findings don’t confirm your hypotheses, explain how the results will be meaningful either way.

10. References

A research proposal uses citations throughout and ends with a complete reference list in the appropriate style (APA for social sciences, Chicago for humanities, Vancouver for biomedical research). Every source cited in the proposal must appear in the reference list.

Research Proposal Example: Problem Statement

Here is an example of a strong problem statement for a social science proposal:

Social media use among young adults has increased substantially over the past decade, with over 70% of undergraduates reporting daily Instagram use (Pew Research Center, 2024). Correlational research consistently associates heavy social media use with increased depression and anxiety in this population (Smith & Jones, 2023; Brown et al., 2022), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. However, the existing literature is dominated by cross-sectional designs that cannot establish the direction of the relationship: does social media use cause depression, or do depressed individuals use social media more? Furthermore, no existing study has examined whether the effect varies by type of social media activity (passive scrolling vs. active posting) or by social support level, limiting the development of targeted interventions. The present longitudinal study addresses these gaps by tracking Instagram use patterns, depressive symptoms, and social support weekly over 12 weeks in a sample of undergraduate women, enabling causal inference and moderation analysis unavailable in prior cross-sectional work.

Common Research Proposal Mistakes

• Vague research question — «Studying the effects of social media» is not a research question. State exactly what relationship you will examine, in what population, over what time period.
• Methodology that doesn’t match the question — A research question about causation requires an experimental or longitudinal design. A cross-sectional survey cannot establish causation.
• Underestimating the timeline — IRB approval alone can take 4–8 weeks. Factor in realistic time for each stage.
• Literature review that only summarizes — The literature review in a proposal must identify the specific gap your study addresses. If you can’t name the gap, the proposal has no justification.
• Not addressing ethical considerations — Every proposal involving human participants must address consent, confidentiality, and risk mitigation.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should a research proposal be?

Length varies by context. Course-level proposals: 5–8 pages. Dissertation/thesis proposals: 15–30 pages. Small research grants: 5–10 pages. Large grants (NSF, NIH, Wellcome Trust): follow the funder’s page limits exactly — these are strict. When in doubt, check your institution’s or funder’s specific guidelines, which always take precedence.

What citation style should a research proposal use?

Use the citation style standard in your discipline: APA for social sciences, psychology, and education; Chicago/Turabian for humanities; Vancouver or AMA for biomedical and clinical research; IEEE for engineering. If submitting to a specific funding body, follow their style requirements exactly.

Related Resources

• How to Write a Literature Review: Step-by-Step Guide
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write a Thesis Statement
• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download

The APA title page is the first thing your reader sees, and it has very specific formatting requirements that differ between student papers and professional papers. This guide covers every element of the APA title page following APA 7th edition (2020), with exact placement, formatting rules, and examples for both paper types.

APA Title Page: Student Paper vs. Professional Paper

APA 7th edition distinguishes between two title page formats. Most college and university assignments use the student paper format. The professional paper format is used for manuscripts submitted for publication in academic journals.

APA Student Title Page: All Elements Explained

Paper Title

The paper title appears in the upper half of the title page, centered, in bold, in title case (capitalize the first letter of major words). The title should be concise and descriptive — APA recommends no more than 12 words. Do not underline or italicize the title. Do not use a period after the title.

If the title is long enough to require more than one line, double-space the lines and center them. The title should appear approximately 3–4 lines (about 1.5–2 inches) below the top margin.

Author Name

Your full name appears on the line below the title, centered and not bold. Use the format: First Name Last Name. Do not include titles (Dr., Ms., Prof.) or credentials (PhD, RN). If multiple authors contributed equally, list them in alphabetical order by last name, on the same line separated by commas, or on separate centered lines.

Affiliation

For a student paper, the affiliation is your department and your university or institution, listed on two separate centered lines below your name. Example:

Department of Psychology
University of Michigan

Course Name and Number

On the next line below the affiliation, list the course name and course number exactly as they appear in your course catalog or syllabus. Example: PSYC 301: Research Methods in Psychology.

Instructor Name

On the next line, list your instructor’s name with the appropriate title. Use whatever title your instructor uses: Professor Smith, Dr. Smith, or simply the name if they have specified a preference.

Due Date

On the next line, list the assignment due date in the format: Month Day, Year (e.g., March 23, 2026). Write out the month fully — do not use numbers or abbreviations.

Page Number

The title page is page 1. The page number appears in the top right corner of the header. Student papers do not include a running head — just the page number. In Word, go to Insert → Header → Edit Header and add a right-aligned automatic page number. Make sure «Different First Page» is NOT checked, so the page number appears on the title page too.

APA Student Title Page Example

Here is how a complete APA student title page looks, top to bottom, all text centered:

[Page number: 1 in top right header]

[3–4 blank lines from top margin]

The Relationship Between Sleep Duration and Academic Performance in First-Year University Students

Jane R. Smith

Department of Psychology
University of Michigan

PSYC 301: Research Methods in Psychology

Professor David Johnson

March 23, 2026

APA Professional Title Page Format

Professional papers (manuscripts submitted for publication) have a different title page format:

• Running head: The running head appears in the top left header on every page, in all capitals. It is an abbreviated title of no more than 50 characters (including spaces and punctuation). Format: Running head: ABBREVIATED TITLE (APA 6th ed.) or just ABBREVIATED TITLE (APA 7th ed. — the label «Running head:» was removed).
• Title: Same as student paper — bold, centered, title case, upper half of page.
• Author name: Same format.
• Affiliation: Institutional affiliation only (no department unless specifying a different unit). For multiple authors at different institutions, list each name followed by a superscript number, then the affiliations with matching superscripts.
• Author note: A paragraph at the bottom of the title page disclosing funding, conflicts of interest, ORCID IDs, and a correspondence contact.

APA Title Page in Microsoft Word: Step-by-Step

1. Set up the page: 1-inch margins all sides, Times New Roman 12pt, double spacing throughout.
2. Add the page number: Insert → Header → Edit Header. Right-align. Insert → Page Number → Current Position → Plain Number. Close the header.
3. Position the title: Press Enter 3–4 times from the top of the document body to move the title approximately 1.5–2 inches down. Then type your title in bold, centered, title case.
4. Add remaining elements: Press Enter once after the title (not double Enter — the text is already double-spaced). Type your name (centered, not bold). Continue with affiliation (two lines), course, instructor, date.
5. Check the spacing: All elements on the title page are double-spaced. There is no extra blank line between the title and your name, or between any elements — the double spacing throughout the document handles the visual separation.

The APA Format Template available on this site has the title page pre-formatted correctly. Download it and simply replace the placeholder text.

Common APA Title Page Mistakes

• Using the 6th edition format for student papers — APA 6th edition required a running head on student papers. APA 7th edition removed this requirement. Student papers in APA 7th edition do not use a running head — only a page number in the header.
• Including credentials after your name — Do not write Jane Smith, PhD or Jane Smith, RN on the title page. Author names do not include degrees or titles.
• Using a larger font for the title — The title is the same 12pt font as the rest of the paper. Bold formatting makes it stand out; a larger font size is not used.
• Not bolding the title — The paper title on the title page is bold. This is an APA 7th edition requirement (it was not required in the 6th edition).
• Putting the title on a separate page from the body — The title page is page 1. The abstract (if required) is page 2. The body begins on page 3 (or page 2 if no abstract). There is no blank page between the title page and the abstract or body.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does a student paper need a running head in APA 7th edition?

No. APA 7th edition (2020) removed the running head requirement for student papers. Student papers only need a page number in the top right header. Professional papers submitted for publication still require a running head.

Is the title page counted as page 1?

Yes. The title page is page 1. The page number 1 appears in the top right header of the title page. The abstract (if included) is page 2. The body of the paper begins on page 3 (or page 2 if there is no abstract).

What goes on the title page if I have two authors?

List both names on the same line, separated by «and» (not an ampersand): Jane Smith and Michael Johnson. If both authors are from the same department and institution, list the affiliation once below both names. If they are from different institutions, list each name followed by a superscript number, then the two affiliations with matching superscripts on the lines below.

Related Resources

• APA Format Template for Word — Free Download
• APA Headings: 5 Levels Explained
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Cite in APA: Complete Guide